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******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Carpenter’s Exotic AnimalFormularySIXTH EDITIONEditorsJames W. Carpenter, MS, DVM,Diplomate ACZMProfessorZoological MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicineKansas State UniversityManha�an, Kansas, USACraig A. Harms, DVM, PhD,Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM(Zoo Health Management)ProfessorAquatic, Wildlife, and Zoo MedicineNorth Carolina State UniversityCollege of Veterinary Medicine******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Department of Clinical SciencesCenter for Marine Sciences and TechnologyMorehead City, North Carolina, USA******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******CopyrightElsevier3251 Riverport LaneSt. Louis, Missouri 63043CARPENTER’S EXOTIC ANIMAL FORMULARY, SIXTH EDITIONISBN: 978-0-323-83392-9Copyright © 2023 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmi�ed in anyform or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopying, recording, or any information storage andretrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.Details on how to seek permission, further information about thePublisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements withorganizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and theCopyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:www.elsevier.com/permissions.This book and the individual contributions contained in it areprotected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may benoted herein).NoticePractitioners and researchers must always rely on their ownexperience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,methods, compounds or experiments described herein. Because ofrapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independentverification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made. To thefullest extent of the law, no responsibility is assumed by Elsevier,authors, editors or contributors for any injury and/or damage tohttp://www.elsevier.com/permissions******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******persons or property as a ma�er of products liability, negligence orotherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.Previous editions copyrighted 2018, 2013, 2005, 2001, and 1996.Senior Content Strategist: Jennifer CatandoSenior Content Development Manager: Somoda�a Roy ChoudhurySenior Content Development Specialist: Shilpa KumarPublishing Services Manager: Deepthi UnniSenior Book Production Executive: Manchu MohanSenior Book Designer: Brian SalisburyPrinted in India.Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******DedicationAs in previous editions, this book is dedicated to the 43interns and residents whom I’ve had the honor to train from1991–2021, and who have brought great joy to my life andpride to our profession: Dr. Tess Rooney (2020–2021), Dr.Neta Ambar (2019–2020), Dr. Gail L. Huckins (2018–2019),Dr. Rob Browning (2017–2018), Dr. Louden Wright (2016–2017), Dr. Melissa R. Nau (2015–2016), Dr. Dana M.Lindemann (2014–2015), Dr. Christine Higbie (2013–2014),Dr. Katie Delk (2012–2013), Dr. Daniel V. Fredholm (2011–2012), Dr. Rodney Schnellbacher (2010–2011), Dr. KristinPhair (2009–2010), Dr. Judilee Marrow (2008–2009), Dr. KimWojick (2007–2008), Dr. Julie Swenson (2006–2007), Dr.Gretchen Cole (2005–2006), Dr. Karen Wolf (2004–2005), Dr.Jessica Siegal–Willo� (2003–2004), Dr. Jennifer D’Agostino(2002–2003), Dr. Adrian Mutlow (2001–2003), Dr. NancyBoedeker (2001–2002), Dr. Robert Coke (2000–2001), Dr. GregFleming (1999–2000), Dr. Peter Helmer (1999–2000), Dr. TamaCathers (1998–1999), Dr. Cornelia Ke� (1998–1999), Dr. GeoffPye (1997–1998), Dr. Nancy Morales (1996–1998), Dr. R. Sco�Larsen (1996–1997), Dr. Pilar Hayes (1995–1996), Dr. CynthiaStadler (1995–1996), Dr. Ray Ball (1994–1996), Dr. ChristineKolmste�er (1994–1995), Dr. James K. Morrisey (1994–1995),Dr. Edward Gen� (1993–1994), Dr. Lisa Harrenstien (1993–1994), Dr. Jane�e Ackermann (1992–1993), Dr. Ted Y.Mashima (1992–1993), Dr. Sandra C. Wilson (1991–1992;1992–1995), Dr. Craig A. Harms (1991–1992), Dr. Mel Shaw(1990–1992), and Dr. Mitch Finnegan (1990–1991). I am very******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******proud of all they have accomplished and their contributionsto exotic animal, wildlife, and zoo animal medicine.I am especially grateful to Dr. Craig Harms (my 1991–1992intern and colleague) who agreed to be co-editor of thisbook; this is the first time I have invited someone to serve asa collaborator on this formulary. His expertise, energy, andprofessionalism helped make this edition of the formularythe best yet!This formulary is also dedicated to my family, who haspatiently supported me throughout all six editions of theExotic Animal Formulary.James W. CarpenterI am indebted to Dr. Jim Carpenter for a 1991 pre-dawnAlaska-time phone call from Kansas offering me the covetedinternship in exotic, zoo, and wildlife medicine at KansasState University, which launched me on my three decadesand counting career in academic zoological medicine,pu�ing me into a position to contribute to the present work. Iam grateful to my primary mentors along the way: Dr.Carpenter (internship), Dr. Michael Stoskopf (residency), andDr. Suzanne Kennedy-Stoskopf (PhD). My colleague andfriend, Dr. Greg Lewbart, has been with me through thickand thin my entire time at North Carolina State, both in andout of work. I dedicate my efforts on this formulary to myunusually supportive family who think I work too much, butespecially to my father, Ronald Harms, who passed duringthe final stages of this book’s preparation.Craig A. Harms******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******ContributorsJeffrey R. Applegate, Jr., DVM, Diplomate ACZMNautilus Avian and Exotics Veterinary SpecialistsBlue Jay Veterinary ConsultingPoint Pleasant, New JerseyLouisa Asseo, DVM, Diplomate ABVPOasis Veterinary HospitalMartinez, CaliforniaHugues Beaufrère, DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACZM, DiplomateABVP (Avian), Diplomate ECZM (Avian)Associate Professor, Zoological Companion Animal Medicine andSurgeryDepartment of Medicine and EpidemiologySchool of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of California, DavisDavis, CaliforniaJames W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZMProfessor, Zoological MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicineKansas State UniversityManha�an, KansasLeigh Ann Clayton, DVM, ABVP (Avian; Reptile/Amphibian),eMBAVice President, Animal CareNew England AquariumBoston, Massachuse�sRocio Crespo, DVM, MS, DVSc, Diplomate ACPVProfessor, Poultry Health ManagementPopulation Health and Pathobiology******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******College of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleigh, North CarolinaNicola Di Girolamo, DMV, MSc, PhD, Diplomate ECZM(Herpetology), Diplomate ACZMAssociate Professor, Exotic Animal MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicineCornell UniversityIthaca, New YorkGrayson A. Doss, DVM, Diplomate ACZMClinical Assistant Professor, Zoological MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesSchool of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of Wisconsin–MadisonMadison, WisconsinPeter Fisher, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Exotic CompanionMammal)Pet Care Veterinary HospitalVirginia Beach, VirginiaJennifer Frohlich, VMD, Diplomate ACLAMClinical VeterinarianOffice of Laboratory Animal CareUniversity of California, BerkeleyBerkeley, CaliforniaJennifer Graham, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian; ExoticCompanion Mammal), Diplomate ACZMAssociate Professor, Zoological Companion Animal MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesCummings School ofVeterinary MedicineTufts UniversityNorth Grafton, Massachuse�sDavid Sanchez-Migallon Guzman, LV, MS, Diplomate ECZM(Avian; Small Mammal), Diplomate ACZM******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Professor, Clinical Companion Zoological Medicine and SurgeryDepartment of Medicine and EpidemiologySchool of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of California, DavisDavis, CaliforniaCraig A. Harms, DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM(Zoo Health Management)Professor, Aquatic, Wildlife, and Zoo MedicineCenter for Marine Sciences and TechnologyDepartment of Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State UniversityMorehead City, North CarolinaJill Heatley, DVM, MS, Diplomate ABVP (Avian;Reptile/Amphibian), Diplomate ACZMAssociate Professor, Zoological MedicineDepartment of Small Animal Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical SciencesTexas A&M UniversityCollege Station, TexasCathy A. Johnson-Delaney, DVMMedical Moderator, Exotic DVM ForumAvian and Exotic ConsultingEdmonds, WashingtonEric Klaphake, DVM, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian;Reptile/Amphibian)Associate VeterinarianCheyenne Mountain ZooColorado Springs, ColoradoGregory A. Lewbart, MS, VMD, Diplomate ACZM, DiplomateECZM (Zoo Health Management)Professor, Aquatic, Wildlife, and Zoo MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary Medicine******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******North Carolina State UniversityRaleigh, North CarolinaJörg Mayer, Dr.Med.Vet., MSc, Diplomate ACZM, DiplomateECZM (Small Mammal), Diplomate ABVP (Exotic CompanionMammal)Professor, Zoological MedicineDepartment of Small Animal Medicine and SurgeryCollege of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of GeorgiaAthens, GeorgiaErica A. Miller, DVMField Operations ManagerWildlife Futures ProgramAdjunct Associate ProfessorUniversity of PennsylvaniaKenne� Square, PennsylvaniaKristie Mozzachio, DVM, CVA, Diplomate ACVPMozzachio Mobile Veterinary ServicesHillsborough, North CarolinaNatalie D. Mylniczenko, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZMStaff VeterinarianDisney’s Animals, Science and EnvironmentLake Buena Vista, FloridaTerri Parro�, DVMPresident of OperationsSt. Charles Veterinary HospitalDavenport, FloridaOlivia A. Petri�, DVM, Diplomate ACZMAssistant Professor, Exotic Animal MedicineDepartment of Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleigh, North Carolina******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Nicki Rosenhagen, DVMWildlife VeterinarianPAWSLynnwood, WashingtonKurt K. Sladky, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM(Herpetology; Zoo Health Management)Clinical Professor, Zoological Medicine/Special Species HealthDepartment of Surgical SciencesSchool of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of WisconsinMadison, WisconsinStephen A. Smith, MS, DVM, PhDProfessor, Aquatic, Wildlife, and Exotic Animal MedicineDepartment of Biomedical Sciences & PathobiologyVirginia-Maryland College of Veterinary MedicineVirginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, VirginiaJulie Swenson, DVM, Diplomate ACZMAssociate VeterinarianFossil Rim Wildlife CenterGlen Rose, TexasMarike Visser, DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACVCPZoetis Inc.Kalamazoo, MichiganKenneth R. Welle, DVM, Diplomate ABVP (Avian)Clinical Assistant ProfessorDepartment of Veterinary Clinical MedicineUniversity of IllinoisUrbana, Illinois******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******ForewordIt is my great honor and pleasure to write the foreword tothe 6th edition of Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Formulary. In thisedition, Dr. James Carpenter, together with Dr. Craig Harmsas co-editor, has once again produced a book ofextraordinary importance to the field of exotic animalmedicine. Since the first edition of the Formulary waspublished in 1996, it has become the indispensable source ofinformation on pharmacologic agents used in companionexotic animal practice for veterinarians worldwide. With thepublication of the 6th edition of the Exotic Animal Formulary,this legacy continues and is strengthened.The first edition of the Exotic Animal Formulary signaled animportant change in the way that veterinarians approachedthe use of pharmacologic agents in exotic animals. Before theFormulary, veterinarians who treated exotic pets gleanedinformation about drugs and dosages for use in birds,reptiles, and small mammals from a myriad of sources. Muchinformation was anecdotal and based on personalexperiences, discussions with colleagues at conferences,published case reports, or extrapolated from drugs anddosages used in dogs and cats. As companion exotic animalmedicine expanded rapidly into a veterinary specialty in theearly 1990s, Dr. Carpenter had the foresight to recognize thatpractitioners needed a centralized, collective, and evidence-based source of information about drugs used in exoticanimals. With the combination of his expertise in exotic,wildlife, and zoo animal medicine, experience in******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******pharmacokinetic studies, and a�ention to detail, Dr.Carpenter produced a unique and pivotal book that hasbecome the cornerstone of an entire field. The Formularyfilled the critical void of consistent, current, andcomprehensive information about drugs and dosages used inexotic animal medicine, and it continues to do so with eachnew edition.Since publication of the first edition, pharmacokineticstudies on a wide range of drugs used in exotic animals havebeen conducted and published with increasing frequency.Each subsequent edition of the Formulary has built upon thelast, with updated information from the most recentpharmacokinetic studies, as well as expanded sections onbiologic reference values and husbandry information. TheFormulary not only compiles drugs, dosages, and biologicreference information but also provides comprehensivereference lists for the information so that readers candetermine the clinical applicability on a case-by-case basis.In this 6th edition of Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Formulary,each chapter has been updated by top experts in species-specific fields with hundreds of new references in total. Thedrug tables have been completely restructured to includenew doses, drug interactions, potential adverse effects, andindications and contraindications for use. Outdated druglistings and drugs that are no longer available have beenremoved. The index has been updated and expanded,making it easier to find drug information, and newappendices have been added. Additionally, an enhancedeBook is available on Ebooks+. Even with all of the newupdates and added information, the book remains extremelywell organized, compact, and user-friendly.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Referring to the Formulary for information about a drugdosage or biological data is a daily routine for anyveterinarian who practices exotic animal medicine. Workingin clinical practice without the Formulary at your fingertipsfor quick access to information is challenging for evenexperienced practitioners. I have owned every edition of theFormulary, and I am confident that when I look up a dosageor biologic information for a clinical case, the information isaccurate, up to date, and reliable.Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Formulary is the one book thatis indispensable to companion exotic veterinary practice.For every veterinarian who strives to practice high-quality,evidence-based medicine in invertebrates, fish,amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, miniature pigs, andprimates, this book is an essential, hands-on referencesource that will be used daily in practice.Katherine Quesenberry, DVM, MPH, Diplomate ABVP (AvianPractice)Chief Medical OfficerThe Animal Medical CenterNew York, New York******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******PrefaceWelcome to the sixth editionof our formulary, currentlytitled Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Medicine Formulary(compliments of Elsevier)! As many of you might recall,creating, updating, expanding, and improving the ExoticAnimal Formulary has been one of my (JWC) life-longpassions (having started it in 1991). Because medical care ofexotic pets has become an integral part of most companionanimal practices, Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Formulary, 6thedition, therefore, was compiled to accommodate this rapidgrowth of exotic animal medicine. For this revision, 29 of themost recognized specialists in our field were invited tocontribute; their role was to evaluate published drugdosages, related biologic and medical information, andreferences, and to select those that would be most clinicallyuseful and relevant to the practitioner.This edition is updated and expanded (now contains 301tables, an increase of 46 tables from the fifth edition), andincludes sections on invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles,birds, backyard poultry/gamebirds/waterfowl, sugar gliders,hedgehogs, rodents, rabbits, ferrets, miniature pigs,primates, and native wildlife. The “Selected Topics for theExotic Animal Veterinarian” has also been updated andexpanded.This book is not intended to replace existing medicalresources or the use of sound medical judgment, but ratherto serve as a guide in providing medical care to exoticanimals. This formulary assumes that the reader has a******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******reasonable understanding of veterinary medicine. Forexample, drug indications are generally listed only in uniquesituations. Supporting tables have been carefully selected toinclude those topics of major importance in clinical practice.As in the previous five editions of this book, the selectionof species, drugs, and other information used in thisreference was based on an extensive review of the literature(over 3150 references are cited, an increase of 650 from thefifth edition) and our collective teaching and clinicalexperience. The book, therefore, is not intended to be allinclusive, but rather a handy and convenient reference forthe common questions and medical situations we encounterin clinical practice.Unfortunately, though, there are relatively fewpharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic studies on exoticcompanion pets for the medications we use in practice. Untilmore pharmacokinetic efficacy and safety studies of thedrugs that we use are conducted, most dosages used in thesespecies are based on empirical data, observations, andexperience.This book is intended to be a practical, user-friendly, quickreference for veterinary clinicians, students, and techniciansworking with exotic animals. We hope, therefore, that youfind this formulary and accompanying tables handy to useand that it adds to the quality of the medical care youprovide to your exotic animal patients. Because exotic animalpractitioners face daily challenges to meet thepharmaceutical and clinical needs of their patients, our hopeis that this book will be a valuable tool in helping meet thesechallenges.James W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZM******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Craig A. Harms, DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACZM, Diplomate ECZM(ZHM)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis book would not have been possible without theinvaluable assistance of many dedicated and hard-workingpeople. Certainly, first and foremost, my appreciation goes toDr. Craig A. Harms, who “made my day” by agreeing toserve as co-editor for this edition of the Exotic AnimalFormulary (which has evolved into Carpenter’s Exotic AnimalFormulary!), provided editorial assistance, technicalexpertise, and personal encouragement. I am also greatlyappreciative of the numerous contributors who unselfishlyshared their expertise and gave of their time, and are largelyresponsible for the success of this book! I am indebted toKarissa Severud, Beth Flax, Hannah Barber, and Dr. SarahWilson for assistance in the preparation of this formulary;and to Dr. Brian Lubbers for reviewing and updating theantimicrobial agents (Tables 15-1 through 15-4) in Chapter15.I also wish to thank all those colleagues, interns andresidents, and veterinary students, both national andinternational, who encouraged me to prepare Carpenter’sExotic Animal Formulary, 6th edition. This let us know thatour efforts in preparing this book are appreciated by theveterinary community and provided a powerful incentive forme to continue working on this reference.In addition, a special thanks to the strong support andencouragement from the administration and faculty at bothKansas State University and North Carolina State Universitywhile preparing this formulary.We also thank Jennifer Catando, Shilpa Kumar, RebeccaGruliow, Ellen M. Wurm-Cu�er, Charu Bali, and Brian******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Salisbury, our publishing team at Elsevier, for their patience,support, and commitment to this sixth edition.James W. CarpenterI am particularly grateful to Dr. Jim Carpenter both forlaunching me on my career in zoological medicine andinviting me to take part in this sixth round of his influential,and now formally eponymous, Carpenter’s Exotic AnimalFormulary (we’ve been calling it the Carpenter Formulary foryears). Despite his best efforts and guidance over manyyears, and especially the past two, I still can’t match hissharp editor’s eye. Special thanks to the contributors whoaccepted invitations, even though they knew full well that itwould be more work than we let on. I thank my colleagues atthe Center for Marine Sciences and Technology: Dr. EmilyChristiansen, Dr. Lori Westmoreland, Dr. Maria Serrano, andHeather Broadhurst for myriad forms of support that helpmake it possible for me to pursue projects like this one.Craig A. Harms******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******About the EditorsJames W. Carpenter, MS, DVM, Diplomate ACZM, is aProfessor of Zoological Medicine at the College of VeterinaryMedicine, Kansas State University. He has been a clinical andresearch veterinarian for 48 years in the field of exoticanimal, wildlife, and zoo animal medicine, and has trained43 interns and residents. He is the author of numerousscientific papers and book chapters; is editor/co-author of theExotic Animal Formulary (1996, 2001, 2005, 2013, 2018, and co-editor of the 2023 edition) and its Japanese (2002), Spanish(2006), and Portuguese (2010) translations; and was co-editorof Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery(2004, 2012, 2021). Dr. Carpenter is also the former Editor-in-Chief of both the Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine (1987–1992) and the Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery (1994–2020; 27 years!), served on the Wildlife Scientific AdvisoryBoard of the Morris Animal Foundation (1998–2001; Chair,2000–2001), the editorial board of Seminars in Avian and ExoticPet Medicine (1994–2005), and the Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine(2006 to present), and is the Past President of the AmericanAssociation of Zoo Veterinarians (1998–1999), the Associationof Avian Veterinarians (2006–2007), and the AmericanCollege of Zoological Medicine (2008–2009). He was awardedthe Edwin J. Frick Professorship in Veterinary Medicine fromthe KSU College of Veterinary Medicine in 2002 and the EmilDolensek Award by the American Association of ZooVeterinarians in 2004. Dr. Carpenter was named the ExoticDVM of the Year for 2000 and the T.J. Lafeber Avian******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Practitioner of the Year for 2012. He was also named aDistinguished Alumnus of the Year by the Oklahoma StateUniversity College of Veterinary Medicine in 2009. In 2013,the Veterinary Health Center (KSU College of VeterinaryMedicine) named the new veterinary facility at Manha�an’sSunset Zoo the “James W. Carpenter Clinic at Sunset Zoo.”In 2016, Dr. Carpenter was awarded both the E.R. FrankAward by the KSU College of Veterinary Medicine AlumniAssociation for “outstanding achievements, humanitarianservice, and contributions to the veterinary profession” andthe KSU Distinguished Service Award for “outstandingleadership and clinical/diagnostic service to KansasVeterinary Medical Association members.” In 2019, he wasthe recipient of the Oxbow Quest Award for “Excellence inSmall Mammal Health.”Craig A. Harms, DVM, PhD, Diplomate ACZM, DiplomateECZM (ZHM), is a Professor of Aquatic, Wildlife and ZooMedicine at the College of Veterinary Medicine and theCenter for Marine Sciences and Technology, North CarolinaState University, and Adjunct Professor in the NicholasSchool of the Environment and Earth Sciences, DukeUniversity Marine Laboratory. He is a 1989 graduate of IowaState University College of Veterinary Medicine and worked2 years in private practice in Eagle River and Anchorage,Alaska. He completed an internship in exotics, zoo andwildlife medicine under Dr. Carpenter at Kansas StateUniversity, a residency in zoological medicine, aquaticsfocus, at North Carolina State University, and a PhD inimmunology, also at North Carolina State University. Dr.Harms has been on faculty in the Department of ClinicalSciences and Center for Marine Sciences and Technology,North Carolina State University, since 1999. He has authored******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******yor co-authored over 200 scientific publications, and was co-editor of Sea Turtle Health & Rehabilitation (2017). He is PastPresident of the International Association for AquaticAnimal Medicine (2009–2010) and of the American Collegeof Zoological Medicine (2010–2011). In 2011, he was honoredwith the Stange Award for Meritorious Service from theIowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine. Hemoonlights as a whitewater raft guide.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table of ContentsCover ImageTitle PageCopyrightDedicationContributorsForewordPrefaceAbout the EditorsTable of ContentsAbbreviationsDisclaimerChapter 1 Invertebrateskindle:embed:0007?mime=image/jpg******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Chapter 2 FishChapter 3 AmphibiansChapter 4 ReptilesChapter 5 BirdsChapter 6 Backyard Poultry, Gamebirds, and WaterfowlChapter 7 Sugar GlidersChapter 8 HedgehogsChapter 9 RodentsChapter 10 RabbitsChapter 11 FerretsChapter 12 Miniature PigsChapter 13 PrimatesChapter 14 Native WildlifeChapter 15 Select Topics for the Exotic Animal Veterinarian******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Index******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Abbreviations• d day• EpiCe epicoelomic• h, hr hour• HR heart rate• ICe intracoelomic• IM intramuscularly• IO intraosseous• IP intraperitoneally• IPPV intermi�ent positive pressure ventilation• IV intravenously• IU international units• kg kilogram• L liter• LRS lactated Ringer’s solution• mg milligram• min minute• mo month• PD pharmacodynamic/pharmacologic data******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******• PK pharmacokinetic data• PO orally• prn as needed• q every• RR respiratory rate• SC subcutaneously• wk week******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******DisclaimerThe editors and contributors a�empted to verify and double-check all references, dosages, and other data contained inthis book. However, despite these efforts, errors in theoriginal sources or in the preparation of this book may haveoccurred. All users of this reference, therefore, shouldempirically evaluate all dosages to determine that they arereasonable prior to use. The publisher assumes noresponsibility for and makes no warranty with respect toresults obtained from the uses, procedures, or dosages listed,or for any misstatement or error, negligent or otherwise,contained in this book. In addition, the authors do notnecessarily endorse specific products, procedures, or dosagesreported in this book. Also, the listing of a drug orcommercial product in this book does not indicate approvalby the US Food and Drug Administration or themanufacturer for use in exotic animals.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******C H A P T E R 1******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******InvertebratesGregory A. Lewbart | Jeffrey R. Applegate Jr.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 1.1Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Invertebrates.a–bcdefAgent Dosage CommentsAmoxicillin Topical pasteapplied to hardcoral lesionsq30d × 2treatments82Stony coral/for treating Stony CoralTissue Loss Disease; Base 2b orproprietary “New Base”(CoreRx/OceanAlchemists) + amoxicillin: handmix silicone-based paste withpowdered amoxicillin(Phytotechnology Laboratories;98.1% purity) in an 8:1(base:amoxicillin) by weightratio; time-release products inpaste regulated amoxicillinrelease over 3 daysAmphotericin B 1 mg/kgintrahemocoel64Wax moth larvae (Galleriamellonella)/PK; larvae are usedfrequently as a model for humanchemotherapeutic efficacystudies (in this case for efficacyagainst the fungal pathogenMadurella mycetomatis)Ampicillin 100 mg/L q12h × 7days108Acropora sp./control of white banddisease (WBD)Benzalkonium chloride 0.5 mg/L long-term11110 mg/L for 10min90Quaternary amine with broaddisinfection properties, not foruse on live animalsCefovecin (Convenia, Zoetis) 8 mg/kg IV105 Horseshoe crab (Limuluspolyphemus)/single injection at thebase of a lateral leg resulted in ahalf-life of almost 40 hr and aCmax of 26 µg/mLCeftazidime (Fortaz, Pfizer) 20 mg/kgintracardiacq72h × 3 wk90Spiders/cephalosporin with goodactivity against gram-negativebacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas);appears safe, efficacy notdetermined 120 mg/kgintrahemocoel110Wax moth (Galleria mellonella)larvae/PK; given in first rightprolegChloramphenicol 75 mg/kg PO, IMq12h × 6 days100Cephalopods******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 10-50 mg/L as animmersiontreatment forseveraldays15,104,107(prepare freshsolution with100% water;change q24h)Corals/reduce lighting for treatedanimals if possible (slowsmetabolic rate and may reducestress and improve drugtolerance); rinse animals wellwith fresh seawater before returnto primary habitat; properly treatany effluent before discharge;florfenicol may be a be�eralternative (risk to humans fromchloramphenicol)Ciprofloxacin 20 mg/kgintrahemocoel110Wax moth (Galleria mellonella)larvae/PK; given in first rightprolegDoxycycline 50 mg/kgintrahemocoel110Wax moth larvae/PK; given in firstright prolegEnrofloxacin 5 mg/kg IM, IV53,100 Cu�lefish (Sepia officinalis)/PK; maybe applicable to othercephalopods 10 mg/kg PO53,100 Cu�lefish/PK; may be applicable toother cephalopods 2.5 mg/L × 5 hrimmersion q12-24h53,100Cu�lefish/PK; may be applicable toother cephalopods 5-6 mg/kg IV76 Sea hare (Aplysia californica)/PK;administered into the hemocoel 5 mg/L × 24 hrimmersion21Manila clams (Ruditapesphilippinarum)/PK; decreasingtemperature and/or salinityslowed elimination 5 mg/kg IM121 Chinese mi�en crabs (Eriocheirsinensis)/PK; given between thefourth pereiopoda and parietaljoint membrane 10-20 mg/kg IM109 Chinese mi�en crabs/PK 10 mg/kg PO37 Mud crabs (Scylla serrata)/PK;absorption and elimination fasterat higher temperatures 10 mg/kg POq24h × 5 days70Ridgetail white prawn (Exopalaemoncarinicauda)/PK 10 mg/L × 24immersion × 5days70Ridgetail white prawn/PK 10 mg/kg IM39 Pacific white shrimp (Penaeusvannamei)/PK******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 10 mg/kg PO91 Giant freshwater prawn(Macrobrachium rosenbergii)/PK 50 mg/kg PO × 5days31Giant freshwater prawn/PK 5 mg/kg offeed × 5days91Giant freshwater prawn/PK 5 mg/kg ICe99 Purple sea stars (Pisasterochraceus)/PK 5 mg/L immersionfor 6 hr99Purple sea stars/PK 10 mg/kg ICe89 Green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotusdroebachiensis)/PK 10 mg/L immersionfor 6 hr89Green sea urchins/PK 5 mg/kg IV63 Horseshoe crab (Limuluspolyphemus)/PK; given in thecardiac sinus 5 mg/kg IV90 Spiders 10-20 mg/kg POq24h90SpidersFlorfenicol 10 mg/kg PO38 Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeusvannamei)/PK; freshwater at 25°C 100-200 mg/kg POq12h × 6 days97Pacific white shrimp/PK; both 100and 200 mg/kg were evaluatedand no deleterious effectsreported 10 mg/kg IM42 Ridgetail white prawn (Exopalaemoncarinicauda)/PK; no dosinginterval recommended butabsorption faster and Cmaxhigher than oral dose (10 mg/kg) 10 mg/kg PO q8h at28°C and q10h at22°C42Ridgetail white prawn/PK 10-100 mg/kgintrapericardial12American lobster (Homarusamericanus)/safety studyFluconazole 3 mg/kg intracardiacq4d × 6treatments102Horseshoe crabs (Limulidae)Formalin 1-1.5 ppmimmersion for 4hr66Horseshoe crabs(Limulidae)/ectocommensals; canalso be administered indefinitely(i.e., until diluted out)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsFurazolidone 50 mg/L q12h for 10minimmersion100CephalopodsImipenem 50 mg/kgintrahemocoel110Wax moth (Galleria mellonella)larvae/PK; given in first rightprolegIodine, Lugol’s 5% solution 5-10 drops/L ofseawater; use asan immersion for10-20 min107Topically at fullstrength (5%)for 20-30 sec107Corals/antiseptic; cauterize wounds;strong oxidizing agent; somecorals are sensitive, includingpulse corals (Xenia sp.), Antheliaspp., and star polyps(Pachyclavularia spp.); removecorals at first signs of stress(polyp expulsion)Itraconazole (Sporanox, Janssen) 10 mg/kg IV q24h3 Horseshoe crabs (Limulidae)/PKLincomycin 100 mg/colony in 20g confectioner’ssugar q7d × 3treatments40Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/byprescription; experimentaltreatment of American foulbrood 200 mg/colony in 20g confectioner’ssugar q7d × 3treatments40Honeybees/by prescription;experimental treatment ofAmerican foulbrood 400 mg/colony in 20g confectioner’ssugar q7d × 3treatments40Honeybees/by prescription;experimental treatment ofAmerican foulbroodNitrofurazone 1.5 mg/L for 72 hr106immersion25 mg/L q12h for 1hr106 immersionCephalopods/nitrofuran;carcinogenic; drug inactivated inbright light; water-solubleformulations preferredOxolinic acid 50 mg/kg PO112 Kuruma prawn (Penaeusjaponicus)/PKOxytetracycline 91 mg/kg PO × 20days44White abalone (Haliotissorenseni)/PK; effective ineliminating withering syndromecaused by a ricke�sial organism 2.6% or 4.2% in feed(dry floating andwet respectively)PO × 14 days45Red abalone (Haliotis rufescens)/PK;effective in reducing witheringsyndrome mortality 25 mg/L 30 minq48h × 3immersiontreatments10Chambered nautilus (Nautiluspompilius)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 10 mg/kgintrasinus113Tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon)/PK;cooking reduced muscle levels by30%-60% and shell levels by 20% 10 mg/kgintrasinus95,22White shrimp (Litopenaeussetiferus)/PK; injectionadministered through the ventralarthrodial membrane betweenthe carapace and abdomen 100 mg/kg PO96 White shrimp/PK 50 mg/kg PO112,113 Kuruma prawn (Penaeusjaponicus)/PK; tiger shrimp(Penaeus monodon)/PK; cookingreduced muscle levels by30%-60% and shell levels by 20% 11 mg/kg PO, IM93 Giant freshwater prawn(Macrobrachium rosenbergii)/PK;minimum withdrawal time 8days after cessation of treatment 2.5-5 g/kg feed × 7days16Giant freshwater prawn/PK;minimum withdrawal time 13days after cessation of medicatedfeed (21 days recommended) 4 g/kg feed × 5days92Giant freshwater prawn/PK;minimum withdrawal time 8days after cessation of medicatedfeed 40 mg/kg IM41 Chinese mi�en crab (Eriocheirsinensis)/PK 1 g/lb of feed85 American lobster (Homarusamericanus)/ga�emia; FDAapproval for food animal use 25-50 mg/kg IV86 Horseshoe crabs (Limuluspolyphemus)/PK 10-15 mg/L q48-72h × 3-5treatments58Chocolate chip sea stars (Poreasternodosum)/cutaneous ulcerations;may be applicable to otherechinoderms 200 mg/colony POq4-5d × 3treatments115,116Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/fortreating American and Europeanfoulbrood; withdrawal time 6wk; should not be used on hiveswhere honey will be consumedby humans; approved by USFDA by Veterinary FeedDirective or prescription******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 700-1000mg/colony65Honeybees/for treating Americanand European foulbrood;withdrawal time 6 wk; shouldnot be used on hives wherehoney will be consumed byhumans; administered inextender sugar/vegetableshortening pa�iesParomomycin 100 mg/L q12himmersion witha 25% waterchange × 6days108Staghorn coral (Acroporacervicornis)/Control of white banddisease (WBD)Silver sulfadiazine cream(Silvadene, Marion MerrillDow)Apply topically tolesionsProceed with caution (biotest ifpossible); treatments areempiricalSulfadimethoxine 50-100 mg/kg infeed × 14 days85Penaeid shrimp (e.g., tiger shrimp,Penaeus monodon)Sulfadimethoxine/ormetoprim(Romet-30, Alpharma)42 mg/kgintrapericardial11American lobster (Homarusamericanus)/PK; no frequencygiven but q3-5d may bereasonable based on half-lifeSulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim(SMZ-TMP)Bioencapsulated inbrine shrimp POq12h20,69,83,84White shrimp (Litopenaeus spp.)/PK;combine 20%-40% trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole with lipidemulsion (Selco, INVEAquaculture) at concentration of1:5100 mg/kg PO72 Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeusvannamei)/PK; shrimp were fed 3meals q8h with 2.0% drug/feed toreach the desired 24 hr dose100 mg/kg PO46 Swimming crab (Portunustrituberculatus)/PK; 1:1 SMZ-TMPmixture more efficacious againstVibrio than 5:1Terbinafine 7.14 mg/kgintrahemocoel64Wax moth larvae (Galleriamellonella)/PK; larvae used asmodel for humanchemotherapeutic efficacystudies, in this case against thefungal pathogen MadurellamycetomatisTetracycline 10 mg/kg POq24h100Cephalopods******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 10 mg/L bath62,107 Corals/efficacy questionable insaltwater; anecdotal evidence ofsuccessful treatment for bacterialinfectionsThiamphenicol 10 mg/kg PO38 Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeusvannamei)/PK; freshwater at 25°CTrifluralin 0.01-0.1 ppm as animmersion85Penaeid shrimp (e.g., tiger shrimp,Penaeus monodon)/larvaloomycetosisTris EDTA and neomycin (Tricide-Neo, Molecular Therapeutics)100 mL/L for 45 minq24h × 7 days asan immersion58Cushion sea stars/cutaneous ulcers;may be applicable to otherechinodermsTylosin (Tylan, Elanco) 200 mg/colonyq7d × 3treatments115,116Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/ appliedtopically to brood chamber forcontrol of American foulbrood(Paenibacillus larvae); US FDAapproval by prescription; shouldnot be used in hives where thehoney will be consumed byhumans 500 mg/colonyq14d × 2treatments98Honeybees/PK; sdministered in 60 gpaper packs with 57 gconfectioner’s sugar, 3 g cherry,and the tylosin 1.5 g/colony2 Honeybees/antibiotic extenderpa�ies prepared by mixing 150 gvegetable oil, 300 g of sugar and1.5 g tylosin; for control ofAmerican foulbroodWinter savory extract (Saturejamontana)0.01% inmicrocrystallinesugar25Honeybees/chalkbrood fungaldisease (Ascosphaera apis); anumber of plant aromatic oilshave been tested on variousdiseases of honeybees32,115,116aNot to be used with invertebrates intended for human consumption unless governmentapproved.bPreferable to treat a single animal of a species (biotest) to determine toxicity.cTank treatment: when treating the invertebrates’ resident aquarium, disconnect activatedcarbon filtration to prevent drug removal. Many drugs adversely affectthe nitrifying bacteria,so water quality should be monitored closely (especially ammonia and nitrite concentrations).Keep water well aerated when appropriate and monitor patient(s) closely. Perform waterchanges and reconnect filtration to remove residual drug following treatment. Discard carbonfollowing drug removal.dBath (immersion) treatment: remove invertebrates from resident aquarium and place incontainer with known volume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent. Watch closely******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******for signs of toxicity.eInvertebrate species, temperature, and water quality parameters can influence thepharmacodynamics of many drugs, especially antimicrobials.fTreatments are grouped by species within drug listings.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 1.2Antiparasitic Agents Used in Invertebrates.a-eAgent Dosage CommentsAcetic acid,glacial3%-5% solution for 1hr18Horseshoe crabs (Limulidae)Amitraz (Apivar,Véto-pharma)Use as directed75,76 Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/acariasis; commercialpackaging should be consulted prior to useDiflubenzuron 0.03 mg/L for 7 days30 Jellyfish (Chrysoara spp.)/control of amphipodsFormalin 50-100 µL/L for 4 hr or25 µL/Lindefinitely85Shrimp/protozoal ectoparasites; approved for useby the FDA in food animalsFormic acid Use as directed115,116 Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/acariasis; commercialpackaging should be consulted prior to use; anempty super must be used on hive duringtreatmentFreshwater 1-3 min dip107 Stony corals, some soft corals, flatworms, and otherectoparasites/ buffer to pH 8.2 and use clean,dechlorinated water; do not use on small polypcorals or xenids; biotest first, if possible,especially when a�empting with a new speciesFumagillin Use asdirected9,49,61,115,116Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/nosemosis(microsporidian parasites); commercialpackaging should be consulted prior to useIvermectin 5 mg/kg IC80a Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus)/euthanasia followingeugenol anesthesia Stock solution of 1:1(1% ivermectin andpropylene glycol);dilute 1:50 withdistilled water priorto topical use90Spiders/for the treatment of individual parasiticmites; apply carefully to mites with finepaintbrush or similar implementLevamisole(Levasole,ScheringPlough)8 mg/L immersion for24 hr107Corals/metazoan parasites; well tolerated byAcropora spp., Montipora digitata, M. capricornis,Seriatopora histrix, Stylophora pistillata 40 mg/L immersion for1 hr11aCorals/about 95% effective in removing Acropora-eating flatwormsMenthol Use as directed115 Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/acariasis; commercialpackaging should be consulted prior to useMetronidazole 50 mg/kgintracardiac × 1treatment90Spiders/appears safe, but efficacy is unknown******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 100 mg/L immersionfor 16 hr100Cephalopods/antiprotozoalMilbemycinoxime(Interceptor,Novartis)0.625 mg/L as animmersion36,57,67Stony corals (Acropora spp.)/ “red bug” (Tegastesacroporanus) 0.16 mg/L as animmersion q6-7d × 2treatments14Jellyfish (Chrysaora spp.)/amphipod parasites; usewith caution on hydrozoans 0.17 µg/L immersionfor 6 hr q3.5d(2 × weekly) × 3 wk23Stony corals (Acropora spp.)/copepod Tegastesacroporanus infestation stony coralsOxalic acid (API-Bioxal, Véto-pharma)Use as directed116 Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/acariasis; reviewcommercial package instructions andregulations prior to usePotassiumpermanganate25-30 ppm for 30-60min85Penaeid shrimp (e.g., tiger shrimp, Penaeusmonodon)/external parasiticidePovidone iodine 0.75% solution fortopical treatment90Spiders/fungal infections; use water-based solution 10% solution for topicaltreatment for 10 secq24h × 30 days10Chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius)/externalbacterial and nematode infectionPraziquantel 50 mg/L immersion for1 hr11aCorals/about 95% successful in removing Acropora-eating flatworms from coral fragments;praziquantel diluted in 100% ethanol to make a50 g/L stock solutionThymol Use as directed115,116 Honeybees (Apis mellifera)/acariasis; commercialpackaging should be consulted prior to useaNot to be used with invertebrates intended for human consumption unless governmentapproved.bPreferable to treat a single animal of a species (biotest) to determine toxicity.cTank treatment: when treating the invertebrates’ resident aquarium, disconnect activatedcarbon filtration to prevent drug removal. Many drugs adversely affect the nitrifying bacteria,so water quality should be monitored closely (especially ammonia and nitrite concentrations).Keep water well aerated when appropriate and monitor patient(s) closely. Perform waterchanges and reconnect filtration to remove residual drug following treatment. Discard carbonfollowing drug removal.dBath (immersion) treatment: remove invertebrates from resident aquarium and place incontainer with known volume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent. Watch closelyfor signs of toxicity.eInvertebrate species, temperature, and water quality parameters can influence thepharmacodynamics of many drugs.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 1.3Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Invertebrates.Agent Dosage CommentsAlfaxalone 200 mg/kgintracardiac51Tarantulas (Grammostola rosea)/general anestheticBenzocaine 100 mg/L5,55 bath Abalone (Haliotis spp.)/anesthesia; not sold asanesthetic in United States; available fromchemical supply companies; do not use topicalanesthetic products marketed for mammals;prepare stock solution in ethanol (benzocaineis poorly soluble in water); store in dark bo�leat room temperature 400 mg/L29 Leeches (Hirudo medicinalis)/this could be applied,with caution, to other aquatic annelids 1 g/L48 Apple snails (Pomacea paludosa)/prepare as 1:4 w/vadded to 95°C water to dissolve thebenzocaine 2.5-3 g/L100 bath Cephalopods/euthanasiaButorphanol Fish, amphibian, andreptile dosagescan be employedwith careAnalgesia; use with caution as dosing regimensare empirical; biotest when possibleCarbon dioxide 3%-5%56 Terrestrial arthropods/euthanasia; isoflurane andsevoflurane may be preferable with regard torecovery; anesthetic chamberdeveloped/described for fruit flies (Drosophilamelanogaster)111Clove oil (eugenol) 100 mg/L (approx0.100 mL/L)88aFreshwater amphipod crustacean, Gammaruspulex/effective sedation but not analgesia 0.125 mL/L (approx.125 mg/L)immersion47Crustaceans/stock solution: 100 mg/mL of eugenolby diluting 1 part clove oil with 9 parts 95%ethanol (eugenol poorly soluble in water);over-the-counter preparation (pure) availableat most pharmacies contains approximately 1g eugenol per mL clove oil 200-400 mg/Limmersion prn orintrahemocoel121aBlue crabs (C. sapidus), red swamp crayfish (P.clarkii), whiteleg shrimp (L. vannamei)/200 and400 mg/L doses generally comparable; minordifferences among taxa; appears safe andeffective in all three 0.35 g/L immersion48 Apple snails (Pomacea paludosa)Ethanol 5% solution27,73 Oligochaetes (e.g., Lumbricus terrestris)/adequateanesthesia for terrestrial earthworms******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 3% solution55 Abalone (Haliotis spp.)/anesthesia 5% solution43,56 Aquatic gastropods/anesthesia 1-4% solution19 Cu�lefish (Sepia bandensis), octopus (Abdopusaculeatus, Octopus bocki)/provided goodanesthesia, usually within 5 min; doseincreased by 1% increments as needed 1.5%-3% solution59 Cu�lefish/anesthesia may not be effective for coldwater cephalopods35 5% solution52 Octopuses/general anesthesia 10% solution100 Cephalopods/euthanasiaEthanol/menthol(Listerine,McNeil-PPC)10% in saline120 Aquatic gastropods/anesthesiaIsoflurane 0.5% increased to2.0% bubbled intoseawater over 40min119Common octopus (Octopus vulgaris)/authors119believe anesthetics like isofluraneare optimaldrug class for cephalopod anesthesia 2% bubbled into thewater94Common octopus/applied via an aquaticanesthesia delivery system Can be used with ananestheticchamberTerrestrial gastropods,50arachnids27,34,74,79,90,122/anesthesia; fastinduction with possible excitatory period;anesthetic depth may not be appropriate forinvasive surgery;43 usually applied at 5%concentration for arachnids 5% with 1 L/minoxygen35Tarantulas (Grammostola rosea)/sedation andanesthesia (depending on the amount of timein the anesthetic chamber) 2 mL on a co�onball6Tarantulas/place co�on ball in a 500 mL beakerwith the tarantula; co�on ball should beplaced/protected to avoid direct contactKetamine 0.025-0.1 mg/kg IV47 Australian giant crabs (Pseudocarcinus gigas)/fastinduction (less than 30 sec) with an excitatoryphase; dose dependent anesthetic duration of8-40 min 40-90 µg/g IM17 Crayfish (Orconectes virilis)/induction time lessthan 1 min and anesthetic duration 10 min atlow dose and 2 hr at high dose 20 mg/kgintracardiac with200 mg/kgalfaxalone51Tarantulas (Grammostola rosea)/results in deepplane of anesthesia******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsLidocaine 0.4-1 mg/g IM17 Crayfish (Orconectes virilis)/induction time lessthan 2 min and anesthetic duration 5-30 minwhen injected into the tailMagnesiumchloridea(MgCl2·6H2O)— 6.8 or 7.5% (68 or 75 g/L, about 340 or 370 mM indeionized water) is nearly isosmotic withseawater and can be used as a stock solution Intracoelomic, 25-50% body weightwith a 1000 mMsolution24,78Sea hares/short induction time (2-5 min) and goodmuscle relaxation 6.8 g/L53,55 Cephalopods/induction time of 6-12 min incu�lefish 1:3 (33%) stocksolution inartificialseawater19Cu�lefish (Sepia bandensis), octopus (Abdopusaculeatus, Octopus bocki)/provided goodanesthesia, usually within 5 min; somerequired as high as a 1:1 stock solutionconcentration 32.5 g/L for 20 min52 Octopuses 10% solution (100g/L) prn100Cephalopods/euthanasia 30-50 g/L60 Scallops (Pecten fumatus)/fast induction andrecovery 30 g/L for 20 min 1 Queen conch (Strombus gigas) 7.5% (75 g/L)immersion69,81Polychaetes 1:1 mixture of 7.5%(75 g/L) withseawater58,77Echinoderms/concentration adjustments may berequired for prolonged anesthesiaMagnesium sulfate(MgSO4·7H2O)4-22 g/100 mL118 Abalone (Haliotis midae)/fast induction and goodrecoveryMorphine 5 mg/kg intracardiacwith 200 mg/kgalfaxalone51Tarantulas (Grammostola rosea)MS-222 (Finquel,Argent)— See tricaine methanesulfonate2-phenoxyethanol 0.5-3 mL/L118 Abalone (Haliotis midae)/quick induction and shortrecovery 1-2 mL/L55 Quick induction and short recovery 0.15% immersion101 Sea cucumber (Cucumaria miniata)/seawater at12°C; for relaxation prior to fixation in ethanol******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 2 mL/L immersion7 Horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus)/mostanimals anesthetized within 15 min andrecovered within 20 min after return to cleanseawater; superior to MS-222 in same studyPotassium chloride 1 g/kg (330 mg/mLsolution) IV13Lobster (Homarus americana)/euthanasia; inject atbase of second walking legProcaine 25 mg/kg IV88 Crabs/very short induction time (less than 30 sec)and prolonged anesthesia (2-3 h)Propylenephenoxetol1-3 mL/L of a 1%solution55,80,87Oysters/anesthesia; should produce anesthesia inless than 15 min; recovery time short (under 30min); higher doses can be used but inducedeeper anesthesia; can also be used for giantclams80 2 mL/L55,114 EchinodermsSevoflurane Can be used with ananestheticchamber at a 5%concentration55,123Terrestrial arthropods/see isoflurane for details ofadministration; use with 1 L/min oxygen flowin tarantulas123Sodium bicarbonatetablets (Alka-Sel�er, Bayer)2-4 tablets/L bath54 Euthanasia; generates CO2; use when other agentsunavailable; keep aquatic invertebrate insolution >10 min after respiration stops;dosage based on fish literatureSodiumpentobarbital400 mg/L75 Aquatic gastropods/anesthesia; very slow onsetbut apparently safe; controlled drug 1 mL/L5 Abalone (Haliotis iris)Tricainemethanesulfonate(MS-222; Finquel,Argent)Dosages and efficacyvary widelydepending onspecies andapplication;consult taxon-specificliterature55,56Anesthesia; stock solution: 10 g/L, buffer acidityby adding sodium bicarbonate at 10 g/L or tosaturation; store stock in dark container; shelflife of stock extended by refrigeration orfreezing; discard stock that develops oily film;aerate water to prevent hypoxemia; foreuthanasia keep animal in solution >20 minafter respiration stops 0.4-0.8 g/Limmersion4Purple sea urchin (Arbacia punctulata)/safe andeffective 600 mg/L88a Freshwater amphipod crustacean, Gammaruspulex/safe analgesic and sedative effects 1 g/L (buffered withsodiumcarbonate)immersion7Horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus)/mostanimals anesthetized within 15 min andrecovered within 20 min after return to cleanseawater; inferior to 2-phenoxyethanol in thesame study; sodium carbonate is a muchstronger buffer than sodium bicarbonate (30 gMS-222 and 14 g sodium carbonate were usedper 30 L seawater)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsXylazine 16-22 mg/kg IV47 Giant crabs (Pseudocarcinus gigas)/fast induction(3-5 min) and approximately 30 min anesthesia(dose dependent) 20 mg/kgintracardiac with200 mg/kgalfaxalone51Tarantulas (Grammostola rosea)/results in a deepplane of anesthesiaaAlthough listed and used as an anesthetic agent, some workers do not believe it meets thecriteria of a true anesthetic.119******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 1.4Miscellaneous Agents Used in Invertebrates.Agent Dosage CommentsBarium sulfate 4 mL/15 g food33 Tarantulas, scorpions, millipedes, hissingcockroaches/contrast radiography; injectinto a strawberry and feed to millipedes;inject into crickets and/or other prey forcarnivorous invertebratesBenzocaine topical(Orabase, Colgate-Palmolive)Topically107 Corals and potentially other aquaticinvertebrates/used as a water-resistantpaste; chemotherapeutics can becombined for topical therapyCarbon, activated 75 g/40 L tank water85 Removal of medications and other organicsfrom water; usually added to filtersystem; discard after 2 wk; 75 g ≈ 250 mLdry volumeChlorine/chloramineneutralizerUse as directed See sodium thiosulfateDiatrizoate meglumineand diatrizoatesodium (Hypaque-76, AmershamHealth)4 mL/15 g food33 Tarantulas, scorpions, millipedes, hissingcockroaches/contrast radiography;combine with/inject into food item andfeed 1-3 hr prior to radiographyHydrogen peroxide(3%)0.25 mL/L water84 Acute environmental hypoxia; dose from fishliteratureIohexol 12 mL/kg IV10315 mL PO103Horseshoe crabs (Limuluspolyphemus)/contrast radiographyMethylmethacrylate Apply topically asneeded28,90Arthropods (spiders, scorpions,insects)/repair fractured exoskeleton;numerous references for application ofsurgical adhesives; consult appropriatetaxon-based literatureMineral oil 1 mL/kg PO Insects/laxative28Nitrifying bacteria Use as directed forcommercialproductsSeed or improve development of biologicalfiltration to detoxify ammonia, nitrite,and nitrate; numerous commercialpreparations; do not expose products toextreme temperatures; use beforeexpiration date******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments Add material (e.g.,floss, gravel) from atank with an activebiological filter andhealthy animals tonew tank84Must evaluate risk of disease transmissionwith this techniqueOxygen (100%) Fill plastic bag with O2containing 1/3 volof water54Acute environmental hypoxia common withtransportation; close bag tightly withrubber band; keep animals in bag untilnormal swimming and respiratorybehaviorSodium thiosulfate Useas directed forchlorine/chloramineneutralizersActive ingredient in numerouschlorine/chloramine neutralizers; chlorineand chloramine are common additions tomunicipal water supplies and are toxic tomany aquatic invertebrates; ammoniareleased by detoxification of chloramine isremoved by functioning biological filter(see nitrifying bacteria) or chemicalmeans (see zeolite) 10 mg/L tank water68 10 g neutralizeschlorine (up to 2mg/L) in 1000 Lwater68 100 mg/L tank water106 Chlorine exposureZeolite (i.e., clinoptilite)(Ammonex, Argent)Use as directed Ion-exchange resin that exchanges ammoniafor sodium ions; clinoptilite is an activeform of zeolite; used to reduce or preventammonia toxicity 20 g/L tank water84 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 1.5Common Captive Invertebrate Taxa.aArthropodsbChelicerates: This group includes the spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs. Some commonspecies are listed here.90,102Chilean rosehair tarantula (Grammostola rosea).Mexican firelegtarantula (Brachypelma boehmei).Mexican redknee tarantula (Brachypelma smithi).Emperorscorpion (Pandinus imperator).American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).Myriapods(centipedes, millipedes):34African banded millipedes (Isulus spp.).Desert millipede (Orthoporus sp.).Giant desert centipede (Scolopendra heros).Giant train millipedes (Spirostreptida spp.).Madagascar fire millipedes (Aphistogoniulus spp.).Crustaceans: Decapods are a diverse group of readily recognized species including the crabs,lobsters, and shrimp. Some common examples include the banded shrimps, crayfish(numerous species), marine hermit crabs, and terrestrial hermit crabs (Coenobita sp.).85Seamonkeys (Artemia sp.).85Insects: Insects, sometimes referred to as the phylum Hexapoda, arean immense group of over a million described species. Some common captive insects includethe beetles (Order Coleoptera), bu�erflies and moths (Order Lepidoptera), crickets (greycrickets [Acheta domestica]; black prairie crickets [Gryllus sp.]), honeybees (Apis mellifera),Madagascar hissing cockroaches (Gromphadorhina portentosa), and the silkworms (Bombyxmori).28,34,90,115,116CoelenteratesScyphozoans (jellyfishes): Although not common as pets, some individuals, and many publicinstitutions and establishments, maintain jellyfish aquaria. Some popular species include friedegg jellies (Phacellophora camtschatica), moon jellies (Aurelia aurita), and the sea ne�les(Chrysaora spp.).107Anthozoans (anemones and corals): Numerous species of sea anemones and corals (hard andsoft) are commonly maintained in reef aquaria. Frequently maintained soft coral groupsinclude members of the families Alcyoniidae, Nephtheidae, and Xeniidae.67 Commonlymaintained scleractinian (hard coral) genera include Acropora, Montipora, and Porites.67EchinodermsThis entirely marine phylum includes five major classes:58Asteroidea: sea stars;Crinoidea: feather stars, sea lilies;Echinoidea: sand dollars, sea biscuits, sea urchins;Holothuroidea: sea cucumbers;Ophiuroidea: basket stars, bri�le stars.MollusksGastropods (nudibranchs, sea hares, slugs, and snails): This group includes a diverse array ofterrestrial, freshwater, and marine species.24,50,67Cephalopods (cu�lefish, nautilus, octopuses, squid): This group includes a diverse group ofmarine species. Some species of octopus and the chambered nautilus (Nautilus pompilius) areoccasionally found in home aquaria.100******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Bivalves (clams, mussels, oysters): This group includes a diverse group of freshwater and marinespecies. One of the most common reef genera is the giant clam (Tridacna sp.).67,80,87aThis is not a comprehensive list of taxa. The reader should be aware that taxonomy is adynamic science and taxonomists frequently assign different taxonomic levels to the samegroups depending on the anatomical, genetic, and other criteria being considered.bIn recent years, taxonomists have determined that crustaceans and insects are sister groupsand belong to a larger common taxon, sometimes referred to as the Pancrustacea.71******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******References1. Acosta-Salmón H, Davis M. Inducing relaxation in thequeen conch Strombus gigas (L.) for cultured pearlproduction. Aquaculture. 2007;262:73–77.2. Alippi AM, Albo GN, Leniz D, et al. Comparativestudy of tylosin, erythromycin and oxytetracyline tocontrol American foulbrood of honey bees. J ApicultRes. 1999;3-4:149–158.3. 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Senseand insensibility—an appraisal of the effects of clinicalanesthetics on gastropod and cephalopod molluscs asa step to improved welfare of cephalopods. Front Phys.2018;9:1147.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******120. Woodall AJ, Naruo H, Prince DJ, et al. Anesthetictreatment blocks synaptogenesis but not neuronalregeneration of cultured Lymnaea neurons. JNeurophysiol. 2003;90:2232–2239.121. Wu G, Meng Y, Zhu X, et al. Pharmacokinetics andtissue distribution of enrofloxacin and its metaboliteciprofloxacin in the Chinese mi�en-handed crab,Eriocheir sinensis. Anal Biochem. 2006;358:25–30.121a. Wycoff S, Weineck K, Conlin S, et al. Effects ofclove oil (eugenol) on proprioceptive neurons, heartrate, and behavior in model crustaceans. Biol FacultyPubl; 2018:145h�ps://uknowledge.uky.edu/biology_facpub/145?utm_source=uknowledge.uky.edu%2Fbiology_facpub%2F145&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages (accessed 13 February 2022).122. Zachariah TT, Mitchell MA, Guichard CM, et al.Isoflurane anesthesia of wild-caught goliath birdeaterspiders (Theraphosa blondi) and Chilean rose spiders(Grammostola rosea). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2009;40:347–349.123. Zachariah TT, Mitchell MA, Watson MK, et al.Effects of sevoflurane anesthesia on righting reflexand hemolymph gas analysis variables for Chileanrose tarantulas (Grammostola rosea). Am J Vet Res.2014;75:521–526.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******C H A P T E R 2******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******FishStephen A. Smith | Craig A. Harms******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 2.1Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Fish.ab-cdefghAgent Dosage CommentsAcriflavine 4 mg/L bath × 4hr179Rainbow trout/organic dye and antifungal agent 10 mg/L bath × 4hr170Channel catfish/PKAcyclovir 10 mg/kg ICe25 Koi/PD, PK; cyprinid herpesvirus 3; single dose safe,reduces cumulative mortality, but multiple dosesprobably required for effective treatmentAmikacin — Use cautiously in animals with suspected renalimpairment 5 mg/kg IMq12h241 5 mg/kg IMq72h × 3treatments241 5 mg/kg ICeq24h × 3 days,then q48h × 2treatments110KoiAmoxicillin — Infrequently indicated in ornamental fish because fewpathogens are gram- positive 12.5 mg/kg IM21 Atlantic salmon/PK 25 mg/kg POq12h221 40 mg/kg IVq24h40Sea bream/PK 80 mg/kg POq24h × 10days40Sea bream/PK 40-80 mg/kg q24hvia feed × 10days150Sea bream/PK 110 mg/kg/day viafeed12Channel catfish/PKAmpicillin — Infrequently indicated in ornamental fish because fewpathogens are gram- positive 10 mg/kg q24hIM231Atlantic salmon******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 10 mg/kg q24hIV169Striped bass 50-80 mg/kg/dayvia feed × 10days150 Azithromycin(Zithromax,Zoetis)30 mg/kg POq24h × 14days50Chinook salmon/PK40 mg/kg ICe51 Chinook salmon/PKAztreonam(Azactam,Bristol-MyersSquibb)100 mg/kg IM orICe q48h × 7treatments184Koi/Aeromonas salmonicida; used by hobbyistsBenzalkoniumchloride0.5 mg/L bathlong-term231Quaternary amine with broad disinfection properties 10 mg/L bath × 10min231 Bronopol(Pyceze,Novartis)15-50 mg/Lbath × 30-60min174,241Mycotic infections (eggs and fish); eggs may require thehigher doseCefovecin(Convenia,Zoetis)16 mg/kg SC203 Copper rockfish/PK; plasma levels of >1 µg/mLpersisted for 7 days in adult fish — Rapidly eliminated in white bamboo sharks, thus notrecommended215Ceftazidime(Fortaz,Zoetis)22 mg/kg IM orICe q72-96h × 3-5treatments184Cephalosporin with good activity against gram-negativebacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas)Ceftiofur 8 mg/kg IM44 Species of Anabantidae, Callichthyidae, Cichlidae, andCyprinidaeCeftiofurcrystallinefree acid(CFA; Excede,Zoetis)6.6 mg/kg IM53 Smooth dogfish/PK; presumed therapeutic plasmaconcentrations >168 hr20 mg/kg IM once30 mg/kg ICeonce60 mg/kg IM once60 mg/kg ICeonce75Koi/PK; concentration-time profiles unpredictable;authors do not recommend75******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsChloramine-T 2.5-20 mg/Lbath36,231 × 60min/day × upto 3 days3Disinfectant; used to control bacterial gill disease andsome ectoparasites; dosage and duration varieswidely with species and water quality 20 mg/L bath × 4hr142Rainbow trout, striped bass, yellow perch/PKChloramphenicol — Prohibited for use in food animals (risk to humans);florfenicol is an alternative 40-182 mg/kg ICeq24h123Carp/PK 50 mg/kg PO, IMonce, then 25mg/kg q24h221Rainbow trout/PK 50 mg/kg POq24h34Rainbow trout/PKCiprofloxacin 15 mg/kg IM,IV153Carp, African catfish, rainbow trout/PKDanofloxacin 10 mg/kg IMonce31,138,162,236Amur sturgeon, koi, European sea bass, brown trout/PKDifloxacin 10 mg/kg POq24h48Atlantic salmon/PK; plasma levels were higher in marinefish compared with freshwater fish 10 mg/kg PO, IVonce223Olive flounder/PK 20 mg/kg POq24h × 3 days42Crucian carp/PKDiquat dibromide(Reward,Syngenta)2-18 mg/L bath × 1-4 hr × 1-4treatmentsq24-48h119-28 mg/Lbath × 30-60min × 1-3treatmentsq48h1Columnaris disease in freshwater fishDoxycycline 20 mg/kg PO,IV248Tilapia/PK; possible enterohepatic cycling; dosingintervals not establishedEnrofloxacin(Baytril,Bayer)— For a reviewof quinolones used in fish, see Samuelsen2006;193 IM injections can be highly irritating totissues202 2.5 mg/kg IVq24h39Sea bream/PK; no metabolism to ciprofloxacin detected******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 2.5-5 mg/L bath × 5hr q24h × 5-7days134Red pacu/PK; change 50%-75% of water betweentreatments 5 mg/kg PO, IM,ICe q24h221 5-10 mg/kg POq24h231 5-10 mg/kg IM,ICe q48h × 7treatments134Red pacu/PK 10 mg/kg POq24h × 10days163Small-scaled pacu/withdrawal period (non-USA) 23days at 27°C; ciprofloxacin detected 10 mg/kg POq24h39,125,193Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout, sea bream/PK; nociprofloxacin detected 10 mg/kg PO,IV52,118,122Brown trout, crucian carp, Korean catfish/PK;ciprofloxacin detected 10 mg/kg PO viafeedq24h130,150,218Atlantic salmon/PK 10 mg/kg ICeq96h × 4treatments132Koi/PK (21°C) 20 mg/kg PO x 7days37Tra catfish 30 mg/kg POq24h246Grass carp/prevention of resistance mutation forAeromonas hydrophila strain AH10 50 mg/kg PO q24hx 7 days247Nile tilapia 0.1% of feed × 10-14 days130Oral or injectable form can be used; 0.1% feed = 1 g/kgfeed; equivalent to 10 mg/kg body weight if eating1% (10 g/kg) body weight/dayErythromycin — Commonly sold as tank treatment for aquarium fish; notgenerally recommended because of toxicity tonitrifying bacteria150 10-25 mg/kg IM,ICe4910-25 mg/kg IM,ICe 1-3 × q3wk49Bacterial kidney disease (salmonids); second dose forcontrol of vertical transmission of bacterial kidneydisease 75 mg/kg POq24h × 7 days35Barramundi/Streptococcus iniae******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 75 mg/kg POq24h × 10days43Sea bream/PK, PD; control of Streptococcus iniae 100 mg/kg q24h x10 days51Chinook salmon/PK 100 mg/kg PO, IMq24h × 7-21days221,231 100-200 mg/kg POq24h × 21days145Salmonids/control of Renibacterium salmoninarum 110 mg/kg POq24h x 14days95Rainbow troutFlorfenicol(Nuflor,Merck AnimalHealth;Aquaflor[VeterinaryFeedDirective-medicatedfeed], MerckAnimalHealth)5-20 mg/kg POq24h105Atlantic salmon/PK10 mg/kg IMq24h250Koi/PK; for MICs of 1-6 µg/mL)10 mg/kg PO q24hx 10 days63Channel catfish/PK10-15 mg/kg POq24h14Channel catfish/PK10-20 mg/kg POq24h × 10days194,198,199Cod/PK, Atlantic salmon10-24 mg/kg POonce54,98Atlantic salmon/PKOrange-spo�ed grouper/PK10 mg/kg IV or 20mg/kg IMonce136Olive flounder/PK10, 25, or 50mg/kg POq12h251Gouramis/PK; for MICs of 1, 3, and 6 µg/mL,respectively******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments10, 25, or 50mg/kg POq24h251Koi/PK, for MICs of 1, 3, and 6 µg/mL, respectively10 or 100 mg/kgIM q12h250Gouramis/PK; for MICs of 1 µg/mL or 6 µg/mL15 mg/kg PO viafeed x 12days60Hybrid tilapia/PK40 mg/kg IM255 White-spo�ed bamboo sharks/PK40-50 mg/kg PO,IM, ICe q12-24h133,221Red pacu/PK100 mg/kg IMq24h199Atlantic salmonFlumequine(Apoquinaqualtes,Sigma-Aldrich)— Gram-negative bacteria; freshwater at pH 6.8-7.2;decreased uptake in hard water; increase dose formarine fish 22 µg/fish PO inArtemia naupliiq48h x 5 days,or 20 mg/Lbath × 2 hrq48h × 3treatments230Sea bass larvae (40 day old)/PK 5 mg/kg POonce82,214Atlantic salmon/PK214Turbot, halibut, eels/PK82 10 mg/kg POq48h81Cod, goldsinny wrasse/PK 10 mg/kg POq24h × 10days150General dose 12-25 mg/kg PO,ICe, IV q24h195Atlantic halibut/PK 25 mg/kg POonce237Atlantic cod/PK 25 mg/kg POonce90Lumpfish/PK 25 mg/kg PO q24hx 10 days152Atlantic salmon/PK******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 25 mg/kg ICeq24h197Corkwing wrasse/PK 25-50 mg/kg POq24h186Atlantic salmon 30 mg/kg IM,ICe150Atlantic salmon/high antibiotic levels several days whengiven IM 35 mg/kg PO viafeed x 5days234Gilt-head sea bream/PK 50-100 mg/Lbath × 3-5 hr156Brown trout, Atlantic salmon/PKFormalin — All doses based on volumes of 100% formalin (= 37%formaldehyde solution); moderate to weakantibacterial activity;150 caution: carcinogenic; do notuse if highly toxic white precipitates ofparaformaldehyde are present; some fish are verysensitive; test on small number first; monitor forrespiratory distress and pale color; increased toxicityin soft, acidic water and at high temperature; treatwith vigorous aeration because of oxygen depletion;toxic to plants; rapid degradation in saltwater-recirculating aquaculture systems by day 3presumptively due to microbial digestion (biotic) orabiotic factors; testing and variable additions may berequired to achieve target dose above 15 mg/L formultiple day treatments120 0.23 mL/Lbath × up to 60min1501 mL/3.8 Lbath × 12-24 hrfollowed by30%-70%water change,may berepeated681-2 mL/Lbath × up to 15min150Eggs/mycotic (oomycete) infections; do not treat within24 hr of hatchingFurazolidone — Nitrofuran; caution: carcinogenic; toxic to scaleless fish;absorbed from water; inactivated in bright light 1 mg/kg PO, IVq24h171Channel catfish 25-35 mg/kg POq24h viafeed × 20 days92Rainbow trout, brown trout, brook trout, cu�hroat trout,not approved for fish intended for humanconsumption in the United States******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 30 mg/kg PO247 Nile tilapia 50-100 mg/kg POq24h viafeed × 10-15days150Reduced palatability at higher doses 67.5 mg/kg POq12h × 10days127Rainbow trout/PK; at 14°C (57°F) half-life ≈ 30 days andresidue present at 40 days after 10-day treatment 1-10 mg/L bath for≥ 24 hr150General doseGentamicin 1 mg/kg IM, ICeq24h204Channel catfish/PK 2 mg/kg IM, then1 mg/kg IM at8 and 72 hr222Brown shark/PK 2.5 mg/kg IMq72h130Nephrotoxic in some species; substantial risk in speciesfor which dosages have not been determined178 3.5 mg/kg IMq24h112Goldfish, toadfish/PKHydrogenperoxide (HP)(3%)0.1 mL/L bath × 1hr189Swordtails/external bacteriaHydrogenperoxide (HP)(35% PEROX-AID, EkaChemicals)— One mL of 35% PEROX-AID contains 350 mg HP 50 mg/L bath × 1hr167Channel catfish fry/columnaris disease 50-75 mg/Lbath × 1 hr167Channel catfish fingerlings and adults/columnarisdiseaseIodine,potentiated(Betadine,PurdueFrederick)Topical forwound, rinseimmediately150Do not use solutions combined with detergent (e.g.,Betadine scrub)20-100 mg/L x 10min231Eggs/disinfectionItraconazole 1-5 mg/kg POq24h viafeed × up to 7days221Systemic mycoses******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsKanamycinsulfate(Kantrex,Apothecon)20 mg/kg ICeq3d × 5treatments150Toxic to some fish 50 mg/kg PO q24hvia feed150General dose 40-640 mg/L × 2 hrbath65Channel catfish 50-100 mg/L bathq72h × 3treatments150Change 50%-75% of water between treatments; absorbedfrom waterKetoconazole 2.5-10 mg/kg PO,IM, ICe × 10days221Rainbow trout/systemic mycosesMalachite green(zinc-free)— Freshwater fish and eggs/mycotic and oomyceteinfections; caution: mutagenic, teratogenic; toxic tosome fish species and to fry; increased toxicity athigher temperatures and lower pH; stains objects,especially plastic; toxic to plants; not approved foruse on fish intended for human consumption 0.1 mg/L bathq3d × 3treatments150Remove residual chemical with activated carbon afterfinal treatment 0.25 mg/Lbath × 15 minq24h242Eggs/fungal control 0.5 mg/L bath × 1hr150Eggs of freshwater fish 1 mg/L bath × 30-60 min150Use 2 mg/L if pH is high 1 mg/L bath × 1hr231Eggs/fungal control 1.6 mg/L bath × 40min q7d x 3treatments4Rainbow trout 2 mg/L bath × 15min q24h231Eggs/fungal control 3.2 mg/L dipq1wk × 3treatments4Rainbow trout 10 mg/L bath × 10-30 min bath150Eggs/fungal control******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 50-60 mg/Ldip × 10-30sec150Generaldose100 mg/Ltopical150Skin lesionsMarbofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q24hr × 3 days at15°C and25°C254Crucian carp/PK; half-life longer at 15°C than 25°C;increase dose in marine fish as drug binds withcalcium, magnesium, and aluminumMethylene blue 2 mg/L bathq48h × up to 3treatments150Preventing infections of freshwater eggs; toxic tonitrifying bacteria and to plants; stains plasticsMiconazole(Monistat,McNeil-PPC)10-20 mg/kg PO,IM, ICeq24h221Systemic mycosesAgent Dosage CommentsNalidixic acid (NegGram, Sanofi-Aventis)5 mg/kg PO, IMq24h2215 mg/kg PO, IVq24h109Rainbow trout/PK;109 quinolone antibiotic;gram-negative bacteria20 mg/kg POq24h231General dose 13 mg/L bath × 1-4 hr bath,repeat prn150General doseNeomycin 66 mg/L bathq3d × up to 3treatments150Commonly sold as water treatment foraquarium fish; toxic to nitrifyingbacteriaNifurpirinol — Nitrofuran derivative; caution:carcinogenic; toxic to scaleless fish;absorbed from water; change 50-75% ofwater between treatments; druginactivated in bright light 0.1 mg/L bathq24h × 3-5days150General dose 0.45-0.9 mg/kgPO q24h × 5days150General dose 4-10 mg/kg POvia feedq12h × 5days150General dose******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 1-2 mg/L bath × 5min-6 hr150General doseNitrofurazone — Nitrofuran; caution: carcinogenic; toxic toscaleless fish; absorbed from water;change 50%-75% of water betweentreatments; drug inactivated in brightlight; water-soluble formulationspreferred 2-5 mg/L bathq24h × 5-10days241General dose 50 mg/L bath × 3hr30Gilt-head (sea) bream, Mozambiquetilapia/no residues found in musclefollowing treatment 100 mg/Lbath × 30min150General dose 100 mg/Lbath × 6 hr30Gilt-head (sea) bream, Mozambiquetilapia, no residues found in musclefollowing treatmentNorfloxacin 10 mg/kg POonce244Crucian carp, common carp/increase dosein marine fish as drug binds withcalcium, magnesium, and aluminumOxolinic acid — Quinolone; active against gram-negativebacteria; increase dose in marine fish asdrug binds with calcium, magnesium,and aluminum; decreased uptake inhard water 3-10 mg/Lbath × 24hr150General dose 5-25 mg/kg POq24h221General dose 10 mg/kg q24hPO231Freshwater species/PK in many species 10 mg/kg POq24h viafeed × 10days150General dose 20 mg/kg POq24h181,182,183Gilt-head (sea) bream/PK; Sharpnose seabream/PK 25 mg/kg ICeq24h197Corkwing wrasse/PK******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 25 mg/kg POq5d at 9°C196Atlantic halibut/PK 25-50 mg/kg POq24h231Marine species 25 mg/Lbath × 15 minq12h × 3days150Decreased uptake in hard water; be�eruptake pH <6.9 50 mg/kg POq24h × 5days32,33Rainbow trout/PKOxytetracycline 3 mg/kg IVq24h45Red pacu/PK 7 mg/kg IMq24h45Red pacu/PK 10 mg/kg IMq24h221Produces high levels for several dayswhen given IM 20 mg/kg ICe231 Some salmonids 20 mg/kg POq8h221General dose 25-50 mg/kg IM,ICe150General dose 50 mg/kg POonce207Tilapia/PK; dose acceptable for freshwaterand brackish fish species but may leadto therapeutic failure in marinespecies207 60 mg/kg IMq7d71Carp/PK 70 mg/kg POq24h × 10-14days240General dose 83 mg/kgPO × 10days26Walleye pike, tilapia, hybrid striped bass,summer flounder/PK 100 mg/kg IMq24h180Tench/PK 100 mg/kg POq24h × 5days251Yellow catfish/PK 100 mg/kg POq24hr × 7days252Grass carp/PK******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 55-83 mg/kg POq24h viafeed × 10days150General dose 75 mg/kg POq24h viafeed × 10days231General dose 10-50 mg/Lbath × 1 hr150Surface bacterial infections; yellow-brownfoam may develop in treatment water 10-100 mg/Lbath150Use higher doses in hard water; mayretreat on day 3 after 50%-75% waterchange; light sensitive; keep tankcovered to reduce photoinactivation;decomposing drug turns dark brown-change 50% of water immediately 400 mg/L bath x12 hr238Giant danio/PK; buffer water with sodiumbicarbonate, total hardness <17.1mg/dL 7 mg/g of feedq24h × 10days240General dosePotassium permanganate 2 mg/Lindefinitebath241Do not mix with formalin; heavily organicsystems may require higher dose; testefficacy by adding the appropriateamount of KMnO4 to a small amountof system water (without fish); redcolor should remain at least 4 hr (if not,then add KMnO4 until the 4-hr test iscompleted); treatment durations mayneed to be shortened to 1-2 hr insystems with lower organic loading(e.g., moderate- to lower-intensityrecirculating aquaculture systems) andfor sensitive species 5 mg/L bath × 30-60 min150Freshwater fish/skin and gill bacterialinfections; toxic in water with high pH;can be toxic in goldfish219 1000 mg/Ldip × 10-40sec150General doseSarafloxacin (Sarafloxacinhydrochloride, Enzo LifeSciences)10-14 mg/kg POq24h × 10days221Fluoroquinolone; decreased uptake inhard water; increase dose in marinefish as drug binds with calcium,magnesium, and aluminum******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 10 mg/kg POq24h231Marine Atlantic salmon 10 mg/kg POq24h × 5-10days66Channel catfishSilver sulfadiazine cream(Silvadene, Pfizer)Topicallyq12h130External bacterial (gram-positive andgram-negative) and yeast infections;keep lesion out of water 30-60 sec afterapplication while keeping gillssubmergedSulfadimethoxine/ormetoprim(Romet, Zoetis)50 mg/kg PO viafeed q24h × 5days150Available as a powder to add to feed andas medicated feed 3 mg/Lseawater × 4hr150Medicated brine shrimp/soak brineshrimp nauplii (larvae) × 4 hr, rinse inseawater, feed immediately to fish;may also work with adult brine shrimpand other live feedsSulfamethoxazole (S)/trimethoprim (T)— Potentiated sulfonamide; change 50-75%water between bath treatments 20 mg/L bath × 5-12 hrq24h × 5-7days18Rainbow trout 30 mg/kg POq24h × 10-14days150General dose 200 µg/mLbath × 72hr200Atlantic halibut/PK 0.2% of feedq24h × 10-14days150General dose (S) 674mg/kg + (T)113 mg/kg offeed × 5days168Striped catfish, hybrid red tilapia/PKThiamphenicol 15 or 30 mg/kgPO q24h × 5days106Sea bass/PK; drug not detected in plasmaor tissues at either dose on day 7;recommended withdrawal times of 5and 6 days after last treatment,respectively******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsTobramycin 2.5 mg/kg IMonce, then 1mg/kg IMq4d222Brown shark/PKTriple antibiotic ointment(polymyxin B, sulfatebacitracin, neomycin sulfate)Topicallyq12h130External bacterial infections; keep lesionout of water 30-60 sec followingapplication while keeping gillssubmergedaNot to be used in fish for human consumption.bPreferable to treat a single fish of a species (biotest) to determine toxicity.cTank treatment: when treating the fishes’ resident aquarium, disconnect activated carbonfiltration to prevent drug removal. Many drugs adversely affect the nitrifying bacteria, so waterquality should be monitored closely (especially ammonia and nitrite concentrations). Alwayskeep water well aerated and monitor fish closely. Perform water changes and reconnectfiltration to remove residual drug following treatment. Discard carbon following drugremoval.131dBath (immersion) treatment: remove fish from resident aquarium and place in container withknown volume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent. Watch closely for signs oftoxicity (e.g., listing and dyspnea). Always keep water well aerated.eSpecies of fish, temperature, and water quality parameters can influence thepharmacodynamics of many drugs, especially antimicrobials.fFor more information, refer to the website by Reimschuessel et al.179 This is acomprehensive and informative resource for many drugs and other compounds used withaquatic animals.gMIC = minimuminhibitory concentration.hSee Table 2-7 for scientific names of species listed in this table.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 2.2Antiparasitic Agents Used in Fish.a-bcdeAgent Dosage CommentsAcetic acid, glacial 1-2 mL/L dip × 30-45sec bath150,241Monogeneans and crustacean ectoparasites;safe for goldfish; may be toxic to smallertropical fishAlbendazole 5 mg/kg PO once148 Atlantic salmon/PK 10 mg/kg PO once205 Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout, tilapia/PK 10-50 mg/L bath × 2-6hr201Sticklebacks/treating Glugea anomala infectionAmprolium(A)/salinomycin (S)(A) 100 mg/kg/(S)70mg/kg PO viafeed67,104Marine fish/Enteromyxum leei myxozooaninfestations; reduced mortalityChloramine-T — See Table 2-1 (Antimicrobial and AntifungalAgents)Chloroquinediphosphate10 mg/L bath,once15050 mg/kg POonce135Red drum/Amyloodinium ocellatum; monitor for21 days, repeat prn; use activated carbon toremove drug from waterClosantel (50mg/mL)/mebendazole(75 mg/mL)(Supaverm, Janssen-Cilag)1 mL/400 L bathonce; may repeatin 3-7 daysfollowing a waterchange ifnecessary241Koi/external monogeneans; safe and effective;reported to be highly toxic to goldfish andmedaka; used in the United Kingdom fordigenean trematodes of sheepCopper sulfate — Marine fish/protozoan, monogeneanectoparasites; copper levels must beassessed with a commercial kit, andadjusted as needed; blue copper sulfate iscopper sulfate (II) pentahydrate (= CuSO4 ·5H2O); when calculating free copper 2+ ionlevels, copper sulfate pentahydrate isapproximately 25% free copper; in marinesystems, concentration should be increasedgradually to target concentration over thecourse of 3-4 days; toxic to invertebratesand many plants; immunosuppressive tofish; toxic to gill tissue; may be removed byactivated carbon******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments Total alkalinity (TA)(mg/L)/100 = mg/L(CuSO4 · 5H2O)General dose recommendation for use infreshwater systems, for 50 < total alkalinity(TA) < 250 mg/L; not recommended for usein freshwater systems with TA <50 mg/L;chelation may be required for TA >250mg/L150 0.012 or 0.094 mg/Lbath × 28 days72European eels 0.02 mg/L bath × 65or 72 hr73,74Rainbow trout 0.1-0.2 mg/L bath231 Use higher dose in hard water Maintain free ionlevels at 0.15-0.2mg/L water untiltherapeuticeffect150 Maintain copperlevels at 0.2 mg/Lwater × 14-21days240Citrated copper sulfate; prepare stock solutionof 1 mg/mL (3 g CuSO4 · 5H2O and 2 gcitric acid monohydrate in 750 mL distilledwater) Maintain free ionlevels at 0.25-1mg/L water × 24-48 hr84 100 mg/L bath × 1-5min24Prepare stock solution of 1 mg/mL (1 g CuSO4· 5H2O in 250 mL distilled water)Diflubenzuron (Dimilin25W, Chemtura)0.01 mg/L bath × 48hr q6d × 3treatments219Crustacean ectoparasites; inhibits chitinsynthesis; drug persists in water long term;marketed for control of terrestrial insects;may need EPA restricted use pesticidelicense for use in the United StatesDimethyl phosphonate — See trichlorfonDimetridazole 28 mg/kg PO viafeed q24h × 10days176Rainbow trout/Ichthyophthirius multifiliis; maybe available through compoundingveterinary pharmacies 80 mg/L bath × 3days (minimumduration)249Experimental evidence suggests some controlof Cryptobia iubilans and/or associatedmortalitiesDoramectin 200 µg/kg IM once94 Fringe-lipped peninsula carp, major SouthAsian carp/Lernaea 200 µg/kg IM once93 Rohu/Argulus; effective but causeddiscoloration, lethargy, and poor appetite******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 750 µg/kg PO viafeed once93Rohu/Argulus; 1000 µg/kg PO causedmortality 1 mg/kg PO q24h × 10days94Fringe-lipped peninsula carp, major SouthAsian carp/LernaeaDoxycycline 5 mg/kg PO × 1 then2.5 mg/kg POq24h × 14 days127aLumpfish/scuticociliatosisEmamectin (SLICE,Merck AnimalHealth)5 µg/kg PO q24h × 7days80Koi/Argulus50 µg/kg PO q24h × 7days80Goldfish/Argulus 50 µg/kg PO q24h × 7days211Atlantic salmon/PK; sea lice (Lepeophtheirussalmonis, Caligus elongatus, C. teres, and C.rogercressyi) 50 µg/kg PO q24h × 7days19,78Rainbow trout/Argulus 50 µg/kg PO q24h × 7days46Brook trout/Salmincola edwardsiiFenbendazole 1 mg/kg IV once38 Channel catfish/PK 1.5 mg/L bath × 12hr108Rainbow trout 2 mg/L bath q7d × 3treatments150Nonencysted gastrointestinal nematodes 5 mg/kg PO × 1dose119Channel catfish/PK 6 mg/kg PO q24h108 Rainbow trout 40 mg/kg PO viafeed q4d × 2treatments231Carp/Bothriocephalus acheilognathi 50 mg/kg PO q24h × 2days, repeat in 14days240 2.5 mg/g of feed × 2-3days, repeat in 14days240 0.2% of feed × 3 days,repeat in 14-21days130 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments Bioencapsulation ofbrine shrimp7Place 1 tablespoon of strained adult brineshrimp in 4 g fenbendazole per 500 mLvolume for 30 min to achieve 15.3 µgfenbendazole per shrimpFormalin All doses based onvolumes of 100%formalin (= 37%formaldehyde)Protozoan, monogenean, crustaceanectoparasites. Caution: carcinogenic; do notuse if highly toxic white precipitates arepresent; some fish are very sensitive: teston small number first, monitor forrespiratory distress; increased toxicity insoft, acidic water and at high temperature;treat with aeration because of oxygendepletion; toxic to plants 0.015-0.025 mL/Lbath q48h × 3treatments150Ichthyophthirius; change up to 50% of water onalternate days 0.025 ml/L (9.3 mgformaldehyde/L)bath × 144 hr245Striped bass 0.125-0.25 mL/Lbath × up to 60min, repeatq24h × 2-3 daysprn150When using maximum dose, treat q3d 200 ppm bath × 1hr116Red porgy/monogeneans 250-400 ppm bath × 1hr followed by 5min freshwaterdip206Yellow kingfish/monogeneans 0.4 mL/L (400 ppm)bath × up to 1 hrq3d × up to 3treatments219Soft water dose 0.5 mL/L (500 ppm)bath × up to 1 hrq3d × up to 3treatments219Hard water doseFormalin (F)/malachitegreen (M)(F) 0.025 mL/L + (M)0.1 mg/L bathq48h × 3treatments150Combination synergistic for Ichthyophthirius;change up to 50% water on alternate days;several premixed commercial productsavailable; mutagenic and teratogenic;malachite green should never be used onfish intended for human consumption******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsFreshwater 3-15 min bath, repeatq7d prn150Marine fish/ectoparasites; aerate well; matchpH with seawater pH; monitor closely;small fish may be sensitive4-5 min bath once129Furazolidone See Antimicrobial sectionHydrogen peroxide (HP)(3%; 30 mg/mL)— Not recommended for use in blue gourami orsuckermouth catfish189 5.5 mg/L (0.18 ml/L)bath × 24 hr or 7mg/L × 1 hr189Serpae tetras 5.9 mg/L bath × 24 hror 10 mg/L × 1hr189Tiger barbs 6.5 mg/L bath × 1hr189Swordtails/Ichthyobodo 6.5 mg/L bath × 24 hror 20.2 mg/L × 1hr189Swordtails 1-1.5 mL/L (30-45mg/L) bath × 20min228Atlantic salmon/sea lice 17.5 mL/L bath × 4-10min once84Ectoparasites; monitor closely; may beharmful to smaller fishHydrogen peroxide (HP)(PEROX-AID 35%,Eka Chemicals)— These are unlabeled experimental treatments75 mg/L bath × 30min146Juvenile Pacific threadfin/Amyloodinium 170-560 mg/L staticbath × 30 min175Rainbow trout/Ambiphrya, Gyrodactyus 300 mg/L bath × 10min140Kingfish/gill monogeneansIvermectin — Do not use; neurologic signs and death attherapeutic doses;84,231 toxic to manyspecies of invertebrates231Levamisole 0.5 mg/kg ICe115 Rainbow trout/immunostimulant 10 mg/kg IM days 1,14, and 28139Sandbar shark 10 mg/kg PO q7d × 3treatments84Aquarium and ornamental fish/antiparasitic******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 11 mg/kg IM q7d × 2treatments84Aquarium and ornamental fish/antiparasitic 1 mg/L bath × 24hr224Eels/swimbladdernematodes 1-2 mg/L bath × 24hr84Internal nematodes, especially larval forms 50 mg/L bath × 2 hr84 Aquarium and ornamental fish/antiparasitic 4 g/kg of feed q7d × 3treatments84External monogeneansLufenuron (Program,Novartis)0.13 mg/L bathprn184,241Crustacean ectoparasitesMagnesium sulfate(Epsom salt)3% of feed x 2days217Rainbow trout/diplomonad intestinal parasite(Spironucleus spp.)Malachite green — See Formalin for combination — Caution: mutagenic and teratogenic; toxic tosome fish species (e.g., tetras) and fry;increased toxicity at higher temperaturesand lower pH; toxic to plants; stainsobjects, especially plastic; remove residualchemical with activated carbon after lasttreatment; not to be used on fish intendedfor human consumption 0.1 mg/L bath q3d × 3treatments150 0.25 mg/L bath × 15min q24h242Salmonids 1 mg/L bath × 30-60min150Use 2 mg/L if pH high 50-60 mg/L bath × 10-30 sec150 100 mg/L topically toskin lesions150Freshwater fish/protozoan ectoparasites;prepare stock solution of 3.7 mg/mL (1.4 gmalachite green in 380 mL water)Mebendazole 1 mg/L bath × 24hr107European eels/branchial monogeneans 1 mg/L bath × 72 hr22 European eels/branchial monogeneans(Pseudodactylogyrus bini and P. anguillae) 10-50 mg/L bath × 2-6hr201Sticklebacks/Glugea anomala 20 mg/kg PO q7d × 3treatments221Gastrointestinal nematodes; do not administerto brood fish: embryotoxic and teratogenic******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 100 mg/L bath × 10min-2 hr84Eels/monogeneansMethylene blue 1-3 mg/L bath150 Freshwater fish/ectoparasites; notrecommended due to poor efficacy; toxic toplants and nitrifying bacteria; stains objects 5 mg/L bath × 24 hr8 Tilapia fry/trichodinids and monogeneansMetronidazole — Spironucleus (Hexamita) and other internalflagellates; some external flagellates; poorlysoluble in water: dissolve before adding towater or feed; change water between tanktreatments 6.6 mg/L bath q24h ×3 days150 25 mg/L bathq48h × 3treatments150 25 mg/kg PO viafeed q24h × 5-10days150Equivalent to 0.25% of feed (250 mg/100 gfood) at 1% BW/day 50 mg/kg PO viafeed q24h × 5days239Freshwater angelfish/Hexamita, Spironucleus 100 mg/kg PO viafeed q24h × 3days150Equivalent to 1% of feed (1 g/100 g of food) at1% BW/day 6.25-18 mg/g offeed × 5 days240 Bioencapsulation ofmetronidazole inbrine shrimp6One Tbs of strained live adult brine shrimp isapproximately 16 g wet weight (≈ 262shrimp/g); 5 g metronidazole plus 1 Tbsbrine shrimp in 500 mL saltwater for 0.25hr will yield 9.32 µg metronidazole pershrimp (2500 µg per g of shrimp)Agent Dosage CommentsNiclosamide 0.055 mg/L bath × 24hr103Rainbow trout/lampricidePiperazine 10 mg/kg PO q24hvia feed × 3days150Nonencysted gastrointestinal nematodes; equivalent to0.1% of feed at 1% BW/day******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsPotassiumpermanganate5 mg/L bath × 30-60min150100 mg/L bath × 5-10 min1501 g/L dip × 10-40sec150Freshwater fish/protozoan and crustaceanectoparasites; systems with high organic loadrequire higher doses; toxic in water with high pH;do not mix with formalin; can be toxic ingoldfish219; test by adding KMnO4 to small sampleof system water and reddish tint should remain forat least 4 hr; continue adding KMnO4 until 4-hrcolor test reachedPraziquantel 2 mg/L bath × 2-4hr172Encysted metacercaria 2-10 mg/L bath × upto 4 hr240Monitor closely for lethargy, incoordination, loss ofequilibrium 5-10 mg/L bath × 3-6hr, repeat in 7days129Monogenean ectoparasites, cestodes; aerate water well;some marine fish sensitive; may be toxic toCorydoras catfish; tank microbiome may adapt todegrade praziquantel rapidly227 5 mg/kg PO q24h × 3treatments231 5 mg/kg PO q7d viafeed, × up to 3treatments221 5 mg/kg PO, ICe,repeat in 14-21days129Cestodes, some internal digenean trematodes; can beadministered via feed 50 mg/kg POonce150Adult cestodes; gavage or give 0.5% via feed at 1%BW/day 5-12 mg/g of feed × 3days240 Bioencapsulation ofpraziquantel inbrine shrimp5Place 1 Tbs (~15 g) of strained live adult brine shrimpand 2.5 g praziquantel per 500 mL volume for 30min to achieve 8.6 µg praziquantel per shrimpPyrantel pamoate 10 mg/kg PO viafeed once221Gastric nematodesSalt (as sodiumchloride,seawater, orartificial seasalts) Freshwater fish/protozoan and monogeneanectoparasites; seawater or artificial sea saltspreferred; seawater is normally 30-35 g/L; use non-iodized table salts; anticaking agents in solar saltsare highly toxic; species sensitivity is highlyvariable (some catfish species sensitive); can betoxic to plants 1-5 g/L indefinitebath150Freshwater fish/prophylaxis or treatment ofectoparasites1-3 g/L bath231 Freshwater fish/supportive care for osmoticimbalances******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 10-30 g/L bath × upto 30 min150With salt-sensitive or weak fish, use lower dosage andrepeat in 24 hr 30 g/L bath × 10min231Fish >100 g only 30-35 g/L bath × 4-5min129Safe for goldfish and koi in most casesThiabendazole 10-25 mg/kg PO viafeed, repeat in 10days221Gastric nematodes; anorexia may be seen (more severeat higher doses), generally resolves within 2-4 days 66 mg/kg POonce221Rainbow troutTrichlorfon(dimethylphosphonate)— Caution: organophosphate, neurotoxic, avoidinhalation and skin contact; aerate water well;especially toxic to larval fish, some characins (i.e.,pacu, piranha, and silver dollars); other speciessensitivities; liquid form marketed for ca�le isconvenient to dispense 0.25 mg/L bath × 96hr q3d × 2treatmentsChannel catfish and other freshwater fish/0.5 mg/Ltank water if > 27°C (80°F); treat q3d × 2 treatmentsfor Dactylogyrus and other oviparousmonogeneans; treat q7d × 4 treatments for anchorworms (Lernaea) and fish louse (Argulus); singletreatments usually suffice for other copepods, othermonogeneans, and leeches150,179 0.5 mg/L bathq10d × 3treatments129Crustacean ectoparasites; change 20%-30% of water 24-48 hr following each treatment 0.5-1 mg/L bath Marine fish/oviparous monogeneans; treat q3d × 2treatments; use 1 mg/L q48h × 3 treatments forturbellarians; single treatment will usually sufficefor copepods (except sea lice), other monogeneans,and leechesaNot to be used in fish for human consumption.bPreferable to treat single fish of a species (biotest) to determine toxicity.cTank treatment: when treating the fishes’ resident aquarium, disconnect activated carbonfiltration to prevent drug removal; many drugs adversely affect the nitrifying bacteria, so waterquality should be monitored closely (especially ammonia and nitrite concentrations); alwayskeep water well aerated and monitor fish closely; perform water changes and reconnectfiltration to remove residual drug following treatment; discard carbon following drugremoval.131dBath (immersion) treatment: remove fish from resident aquarium and place in container withknown volume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent; watch closely for signs oftoxicity, e.g., listing and dyspnea; always keep water well aerated.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******eSee Table 2-7 for scientific names of species listed in this table.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 2.3Chemical Sedation, Anesthetic, and Analgesic Agents Used in Fish.a-bcdeAgent Dosage CommentsAlfaxalone (Alfaxan,Jurox)0.5 mg/L bathsedation; 5 mg/Lanesthesia17Goldfish/sedation and anesthesia 5 mg/L bathinduction23Oscar (cichlid)/sedation and anesthesia 10 mg/L bathinduction; 1.0-2.5mg/Lmaintenance144Sedation and anesthesia; not recommended asan injectable agent for koi carp; may haveopercular cessation at 2.5 mg/L15Atipamezole(Antisedan,Zoetis)0.2 mg/kg IM57IM dose dependenton previousdexmedetomidineinjection (equalvolume or 10x mgdose)62Gulf of Mexico sturgeon, black sea bass,bonnethead shark, sandbar shark/reversalagent (α2 antagonist) for medetomidineBenzocaine — Anesthetic; not sold for fish in United States;available from chemical supply companies;do not use topical anesthetic productsmarketed for mammals; prepare stocksolution in ethanol as benzocaine is poorlysoluble in water; store in dark bo�le at roomtemperature 15-40 mg/L bath150 Sedation for transport 50-500 mg/L bath150 Anesthesia 70 mg/L bathinduction × 5 min,then 35 mg/L × 30min91Channel catfish/anesthesia 100-200 mg/L bath forfish < 400 g210Lumpfish/anesthesia; not suitable for fish >600 g 1 g/L water spray150 Large fish/anesthesia; spray onto gills with asprayerButorphanol 0.05-0.1 mg/kg IM221 Postoperative analgesia 0.4 mg/kg IM once87 Koi/postoperative analgesia 10 mg/kg IM once16 Koi/postoperative analgesia/respiratorydepression at this dose; lower dosage mightbe warrantedCarbon dioxide — See Table 2-5 (Euthanasia agents)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsClove oil (also seeEugenol)— Clove oil consists of a mixture of eugenol,methyleugenol, isoeugenol, and othercompounds; in this generic form, is notapproved by the FDA for use in fish intendedfor human consumption 10-15 mg/L bath164 Siamese fighting fish (be�a) 30 mg/L bath124 Pikeperch/anesthesia 40-120 mg/L bath129 Stock solution: 100 mg/mL of clove oil bydiluting 1 part clove oil with 9 parts 95%ethanol (eugenol is poorly soluble in water);over-the-counter preparation (pure) availableat most pharmacies contains approximately 1g eugenol per mL of clove oil; recovery maybe prolonged; use lower end of this range tostart; many bony fishes readily anesthetizedwith 25-50 mg/L 60 mg/L bath165 Walleye, northern pike, smallmouth bass, lakesturgeon/PD; anesthesia 60 mg/L bath59 Cardinal tetra, freshwater angelfish/PD;anesthesia 90 mg/L bath59 Banded cichlid/PD; anesthesia 500 mg/L bath161 Amur catfish/PD; anesthesia; caution: this doseresulted in extremely rapid induction time of~1 minDexmedetomidine 0.025-0.1 mg/kg IMonce62Bonnethead shark, sandbar shark/analgesiawithout respiratory depressionDexmedetomidine(D)/Ketamine(K)/Midazolam(M)(D) 0.05-0.1mg/kg + (K) 2-4mg/kg + (M) 0.2mg/kg combinedIM28Black sea bass/sedation; potentially fatal in redporgyEthanol 1%-1.5% bath85 Anesthetic levels difficult to control, resulting inoverdose; not recommendedEtomidate 0.5-3.6 mg/L bath173 Golden shiners, channel catfish, stripedbass/anesthesia; lower dosage should be usedwith striped bass 2-4 mg/L bath9 Zebrafish, black tetra, freshwater angelfish,southern platyfish/PD; anesthesia 1-2 mL/Lbath126,187,188European perch, pikeperch, commoncarp/anesthetic dose for commercialpreparation of etomidate sold in Europe(Propiscin)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsEugenol (a purifiedderivative of cloveoil; also see cloveoil)— Aqui-SE contains 50% eugenol and Aqui-S20E10% eugenol; a compound mixture ofeugenol and polysorbate 80 (for solubility);lower doses (6 mg/L) will produce sedationwithout general anesthesia2,231 10 mg/L bath253 Grass carp/PK, PD; sedation for transport 10-100 mg/L bath2 Sedation, anesthesia 15 or 25 mg/kg216 California yellowtail/anesthesia (Aqui-20E) 17-25 mg/L bath231 Sedation, anesthesia 35-55 mg/L bath208 Various cultured and wild marine fish speciesincluding white sea bass, Californiayellowtail, and California halibut/anesthesia(Aqui-20); 50 mg/L bath114 Common snook/anesthesia 60-100 mg/L bath76 Zebrafish/PD; anesthesiaHydromorphone 0.2 mg/kg IM once62 Unicorn leatherjacket and otherspecies/postoperative analgesia; shorterduration of action and more potent thanmorphineIsoflurane 0.5-2 mL/L bath orvaporize, thenbubble in water85Anesthesia; levels difficult to control resulting inoverdose; also potential human exposurehazard; not recommendedKetamine 5-10 mg/kg IM or SConce62Immobilization; generally combined with otherdrugs such as dexmedetomidine ormidazolam 66-88 mg/kg IM221 Immobilization; for short procedures; completerecovery can take >1 hrKetamine(K)/medetomidine(M)d(K) 1-2 mg/kg + (M)0.05-0.1 mg/kgIM85Immobilization; reverse medetomidine withatipamezole (0.2 mg/kg IM)(K) 6 mg/kg + (M) 0.06mg/kg IM57Gulf of Mexico sturgeon/immobilization;reversed with atipamezole (0.3 mg/kg IM)Ketoprofen (Ketofen,Zoetis)2 mg/kg IM once87 Koi/postoperative analgesia3 mg/kg IM, IV69 Rainbow trout/PK; analgesia 8 mg/kg IM69 Nile tilapia/PK; analgesiaLidocaine <1-2 mg/kg totaldose85Local anesthesia; use cautiously in small fishAgent Dosage Comments******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsMedetomidined 0.03-0.07 mg/kgIV57See ketamine for combination; medetomidine is offmarket, but is available through selectedcompounding servicesMeloxicam 1 mg/kg IM, IVonce58Nile tilapia/PK; rapid elimination; multiple dailytreatments would be necessary 0.5 mg/kg IM, IVq12-24h146aNursehound sharks/PK; poor oral absorptionMetomidate(Aquacalm,Syndel USA)— Sedation and anesthesia; gouramis may be sensitive;contraindicated in cichlids in water of pH <5 0.06-0.2 mg/Lbath220Transport sedation 0.1-1 mg/L bath13 0.5-1 mg/L bath85 Light sedation 1 mg/L bath117 Convict cichlids/24 hr transport sedation 1-10 mg/L bathinduction; 0.1-1 mg/Lmaintenance220Freshwater fish/anesthesia 2.5-5 mg/L bath85 Heavy sedation 2.5-5 mg/L bathinduction; 0.2-0.3 mg/Lmaintenance220Marine fish/anesthesia 3 mg/kg IV83 Atlantic halibut, turbot/PK; anesthesia 3 mg/L bath157 Atlantic salmon/anesthesia at 5.0-7.7°C 5-10 mg/L bath85 Anesthesia; some species require 10-30 mg/L bath 7 mg/kg PO83 Turbot/PK; anesthesia 9 mg/L bath × 5min83Atlantic halibut, turbot/PK; anesthesiaMorphine 5 mg/kg IM16 Koi/analgesia 6.7 mg/kg ICe113 Rainbow trout/PD; analgesia 40 mg/kg IP or 17mg/kg IV149Winter flounder/analgesia; both doses causedsignificant bradycardia and prolonged (>48 hr)increase in cardiac output; not recommendedMS-222 (Tricaine-S,Syndel USA)— See tricaine methanesulfonate2-Phenoxyethanol 0.1-0.5 mL/Lbath231Carp/anesthesia******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 0.15 mL/L bath166 Elasmobranchs (14 species)/immobilization 0.17-0.3 mg/Lbath233White sea bream, sharpsnout sea bream/anesthesia 0.6 mL/L bath231 Carp/anesthesiaPropofol 2.5 mg/kg IV143 Spo�ed bamboo shark/anesthesia 2.5 mg/L bath × upto 20 min154Koi/anesthesia; immersion >20 min had prolongedrecovery 3.5-7.5 mg/kg IV57 Gulf of Mexico sturgeon/anesthesia 5 mg/L bath155 Koi/PK; anesthesia 7 mg/L bath64 Goldfish/anesthesia; induction time 7.4 min;recovery time 8.5 minQuinaldine sulfate — Not sold as fish anesthetic in United States; stocksolution: 10 g/L; buffer the acidity by addingsodium bicarbonate to saturation; store stock indark container; shelf life of stock extended byrefrigeration or freezing; aerate water to preventhypoxemia; drug not metabolized and is excretedunchanged85 25 mg/L bath231 Channel catfish, salmonids/anesthesia; do not usewith largemouth bass; also not recommended forlong surgical procedures 50-100 mg/L bathinduction; 15-60 mg/Lmaintenance85AnesthesiaRobenacoxib(Onsior, Elanco)2 mg/kg IM177 Rainbow trout/PK, PD; presumptive antinociceptiveplasma concentration duration 3-4 daysTricainemethanesulfonate(MS-222;Tricaine-S,Syndel USA)— Stock solution: 10 g/L; buffer the acidity by addingsodium bicarbonate at 10 g/L or to saturation(unbuffered solution may cause someectoparasites to leave fish);24 store stock in darkcontainer; shelf life of stock extended byrefrigeration or freezing; stock that develops anoily film or brown discoloration should bediscarded; aerate waterto prevent hypoxemia;narrower margin of safety in young fish and softwarm water 15-50 mg/L bath85 Sedation, anesthesia 25-50 ppm bathinduction62Mahi-mahi, bonnethead shark, other ram- ventilatingfish/sedation and anesthesia******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 50-100 mg/L bathinduction; 50-60 mg/Lmaintenance220Anesthesia 100 mg/L bath124 Pike perch/PD; anesthesia100-200 mg/L bathinduction; 50-100 mg/Lmaintenance85Anesthesia100 mg/L and 200mg/L bath210Lumpfish/sedation and anesthesia1 g/L waterspray150Large fish/sedation and anesthesia; spray onto gillswith a sprayeraNot to be used in fish for human consumption.bPreferable to treat single fish of a species to determine toxicity.cAerate water during anesthetic procedures; dissolved oxygen concentrations should bemaintained between 6 and 10 mg/L (ppm).dMedetomidine is no longer commercially available, although it can be obtained from selectcompounding services; a dosage is listed here as a guide for possible use withdexmedetomidine, an α2 agonist that is the active optical enantiomer of racemic compoundmedetomidine; in other species, dexmedetomidine is used at 1/2 the dose of medetomidine;however, the effects of the v/v use of the two drugs may not be equivalent, so the dose ofdexmedetomidine may need to be adjusted based on clinical response.eSee Table 2-7 for scientific names of species listed in this table.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 2.4Miscellaneous Agents Used in Fish.a-bcdAgent Dosage CommentsAscorbic acid (vitamin C) 3-5 mg/kg IM q24h19225-50 mg/kg IM, SC62Dilute with appropriate fluid to decreasetissue damage due to acidityAtropine 0.1 mg/kg IM, IV,ICe219Treatment of organophosphate andchlorinated hydrocarbon toxicitiesB-vitamin complex (B1, B2,B6, B12)10 mg/kg SC62 Dose is based on thiamine componentBecaplermin (Regranex,Smith & Nephew)Topically as a thinlayer × 3 min56Ocean surgeonfish/light debridement ofthe head and lateral line erosion(HLLE) lesions recommended priorto treatment; multiple treatments notwarranted; fish should be returned tohabitat without predisposing factorsto HLLECarbon, activated 75 g/40 L tank water150 Removal of medications and otherorganics from water; usually addedto filter system; discard after 2 wk; 75g ≈ 250 mL dry volumeCarp pituitary extract 0.75 mg/kg IM231 Female fish (<2 kg) 1-1.5 mg/kg IM231 Male fish 1.5 mg/kg IM231 Female fish (2-5 kg) 2.5-3 mg/kg IM231 Female fish (>5 kg) 5 mg/kg IM, repeat in 6hr221Dose when combined with humanchorionic gonadotropin (20 U/kg);hormone to stimulate release of eggs(may be given in 2 doses, 24 hr apart;the first “preparatory” dose ≤10% ofthe total dose); does not cause eggs tomature; do not administer unlesseggs are matureChlorine/chloramineneutralizerUse as directed See also sodium thiosulfateDexamethasone 0.2 mg/kg IM, SConce62Adjunct for shock, trauma, or chronicstress syndromes 1-2 mg/kg IM, ICe221 Shock, trauma, or chronic stress 2 mg/kg IV, ICe q12h129 Chlorine toxicity; may improveprognosisDoxapram 5 mg/kg IV, ICe219 Respiratory stimulant******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Comments 5 mg/kg dripped overgill62 Epinephrine (1:1000) 0.2-0.5 mL IM, IV, ICe,intracardiac219Cardiac arrestFurosemide 2-5 mg/kg IM, ICe q12-72h221Diuretic; ascites; generalized edema; ofquestionable value because fish lack aloop of HenleGlucans (MacroGard, Orffa) — Polysaccharides; immune stimulant2-10 mg/kg ICe185,231 Atlantic salmon 1 g/kg of feed × 24 daysfed at 3% BW190Red-tailed black shark/decrease inmortalities from Streptococcus iniae 2 g/kg of feed × 7days209Rainbow trout/increased nonspecificimmunitysGnRHa (salmongonadotropin-releasinghormoneanalogue) + domperidone(Ovaprim, Syndel USA)0.5 mL/kg (0.5 µL/g)IM, ICe96,159Spawning aid; enhances/triggersovulation and spermiationHaloperidol 0.5 mg/kg IM221 Dopamine-blocking agent; stimulatesegg release; use with luteinizingreleasing hormone analog (LRH-A)Hetastarch (hydroxyethylstarch)0.5-1 mL/kg IVslowly62Freshwater and marine fish/colloidalreplacement fluidHuman chorionicgonadotropin (hCG)(Chorulon, MerckAnimal Health)— Male and female broodfish/aid inimproving spawning function;hormone to stimulate release of eggs(ovulation) and sperm (spermiation);does not cause eggs to mature: do notadminister unless eggs are mature 20 U/kg IM, repeat in 6hr221Dose when combined with carp pituitaryextract (5 mg/kg) 30 U/kg (23-232 U/kgfor males; 30-828U/kg for females)IM, repeat q6h × 1-3treatments27,221 800-1000 U/kg IMq8h243CarpHydrocortisone 1-4 mg/kg IM, ICe221 Adjunct for shock, trauma, or chronicstress syndromesHydrogen peroxide (3%) 0.25 mL/L bath150 Acute environmental hypoxia; seeOxygen in this section******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsLuteinizing releasinghormone analog (LRH-A)2 µg/kg IM, then 8µg/kg 6 hr later221Synthetic luteinizing releasing hormoneanalog; stimulates egg release; doesnot cause eggs to mature: do notadminister unless eggs are mature;administer with haloperidol orreserpine with the first injection ofLRH-A in species that do not respondto LRH-A aloneMethyltestosterone — Masculinization of females 30 mg/kg PO q24h × 2or 4 days179Rainbow trout/PD 30 mg/kg PO235 Tilapia/PK 40 mg/kg PO × 40days111Rainbow trout/PK 60 mg/kg PO × 18 or 22days77,141Tilapia/PDNitrifying bacteria Use as directed forcommercialproductsSeed or enhance development ofbiological filtration to detoxifyammonia and nitrite; commercialpreparations; do not expose productsto extreme temperatures; use beforeexpiration date Add material (e.g.,floss, gravel,biomedia) fromsystem with anactive biologicalfilter and healthyfish to new or naïvesystem150Potential risk of disease transmissionwith this transfer techniqueNucleotide (Aquagen,Novartis)2 g/kg of feed at 3%BW × 24 days190Red-tailed black sharks/reducedmortalities from Streptococcus iniae;commercial product has beendiscontinuedOxygen (100%) Fill plastic bag with O2containing 1/3 volof water129Acute environmental hypoxia commonwith transportation; close bag tightlywith rubber band; keep fish in baguntil normal swimming andrespiratory behaviorReserpine 50 mg/kg IM221 Dopamine-blocking agent; use withLRH-A to stimulate release of eggs******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage CommentsSalt (sodium chloride) 1-3 g/L bath1283-5 g/L bath150Freshwater fish/prevention of stress-induced mortality; seawater orartificial sea salts preferred; usenoniodized table salts; someanticaking agents in solar salts arehighly toxic; highly variable speciessensitivity to salt (some catfishsensitive); toxic to some plants Add chloride toproduce at least a6:1 ratio (w/w) ofCl:NO2 ions150Treatment of nitrite toxicity; tablesalt = 60% Cl, artificial sea salts = 55%ClSodium thiosulfate Use as directed forchlorine/chloramineneutralizerproductsActive ingredient in numerouschlorine/chloramine neutralizers;chlorine and chloramine are commonadditions to municipal water suppliesand are toxic to fish; ammoniareleased by detoxification ofchloramine is removed byfunctioning biological filter (seenitrifying bacteria) or chemical means(see zeolite) 10 mg/L water129 10 g neutralizes chlorine (up to 2 mg/L)from 1000 L water 100 mg/L water219 Chlorine exposureZeolite (i.e., clinoptilolite) Use as directed forcommercialproductsIon-exchange resin that exchangesammonia for sodium ions;clinoptilolite is an active form ofzeolite; used to reduce or preventammonia toxicity; more effective forremoval of some compounds (e.g.,sulfonamides, enrofloxacin) thanactivated carbon20,97,158 20 g/L water150 aNot to be used in fish for human consumption.bPreferable to treat singlefish of a species (biotest) to determine toxicity.cBath treatment: remove fish from resident aquarium and place in container with knownvolume of water and concentration of therapeutic agent; watch closely for signs of toxicity,e.g., listing and dyspnea; always keep water well aerated.dSee Table 2-7 for scientific names of species listed in this table.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 2.5Euthanasia Agents Used in Fish.a,bA secondary method of euthanasia (physical or chemical destruction of brain function) isrecommended in all instances.Agent Dosage CommentsBenzocaine (benzocainehydrochloride)≥250 mg/L bath for at least 10min10Solution should be buffered; once thefish loses consciousness, asecondary method (doublepithing, decapitation, injectablepentobarbital) should be usedCarbon dioxide Immersion to effect10 Fish may become hyperactive beforelosing consciousness; use in awell-ventilated area; use only CO2from a source that allows carefulregulation of concentrationEthanol 10-30 mL 95% ethanol/L bathto effect10= 1-3% ethanol; used when otheragents unavailable; directimmersion in 70% or 95% ethanolnot acceptable for euthanasiaEugenol (a purifiedderivative of clove oil;also see clove oil)≥17 mg/L bath to effect10 Concentrations up to 10 times thisamount may need to be used; oncethe fish loses consciousness, asecondary method (doublepithing, decapitation, injectablepentobarbital) should be usedIsoflurane 5-20 mL/L bath to effect10 Due to the volatility of this compoundand risk to humans, ventilationprecautions should be takenKetamine 66-88 mg/kg IM10 Follow with a lethal pentobarbitalinjectionKetamine(K)/dexmedetomidine(D)(K) 1-2 mg/kg + (D) 0.05-0.1mg/kg IM10Follow with a lethal pentobarbitalinjectionLidocaine 400 mg/L bath to effect29 Adult zebrafish/solution should bebuffered; response variesconsiderably across fish speciesPentobarbital (sodiumpentobarbital)60-100 mg/kg IV, ICe orintracardiac10Often used as a secondary step forother euthanasia methods2-phenoxyethanol ≥0.5-0.6 mL/L or 0.3-0.4 mg/Lbath to effect10Secondary method (double pithing,decapitation, injectablepentobarbital) should be usedPotassium chloride 10 mmol/kg (= 750 mg/kg)intracardiac137Secondary method after fish isrendered insensible, notacceptable as primary method; 1-2******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******mmol/kg is general vertebratedose for euthanasia10Propofol 1.5-2.5 mg/kg IM10 Follow with a lethal pentobarbitalinjection 5-10 mg/L bath to effect154 Once fish loses consciousness, asecondary method (doublepithing, decapitation, injectableintracardiac pentobarbital) shouldbe usedQuinaldine sulfate ≥100 mg/L bath to effect10 Solution should be buffered toprevent water from becomingacidicSevoflurane 5-20 mL/L bath to effect10 Due to the volatility of this compoundand risk to humans, ventilationprecautions should be takenSodium bicarbonate 30 g/L bath150 Additon to water generates CO2; usedwhen other agents unavailable;keep fish in solution >10 min afterrespiration stops then usesecondary killing method; not anAVMA-approved method ofeuthanasiaSodium bicarbonatetablets (Alka-Sel�er,Bayer)2-4 tablets/L bath68 Additon to water generates CO2; usedwhen other agents unavailable;keep fish in solution >10 min afterrespiration stops then usesecondary killing method; not anAVMA-approved method ofeuthanasiaTricainemethanesulfonate(MS-222) (Tricaine-S,Syndel USA)250-500 mg/L bath × >10 minafter cessation ofrespiration10Concentratedbuffered solution of MS-222 applied directly to thegills10,86Buffering is required and a secondarymethod (double pithing,decapitation, injectablepentobarbital) should be usedForuse with fish that are too large forimmersion; a secondaryeuthanasia method is requiredaNot to be used in fish for human consumption; CO2 euthanasia is the exception.bSee Table 2-7 for scientific names of species listed in this table.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 2.6Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Fish.a,bMeasurement Goldfish (Carassius auratus)70 Koi (Cyprinus carpio)70,160,232Salinity 0 ppt 0 pptHematologyPCV (%) 31 ± 7.3 35 (24-43)RBC (106/µL) 1.5 ± 0.1 1.61-1.91Hgb (g/dL) 9.1 ± 0.4 6.32-7.55MCV (fL) — 166-190MCH (pg) — 37.7-42.7MCHC (g/dL) — 20.4-22.9WBC (103/µL) — 19.8-28.1 Heterophils (%) 29 ± 3 8.0-13.9 Lymphocytes (%) 70 ± 5 74.5-83.7 Monocytes (%) 1 ± 0.1 2.3-3.4 Basophils (%) — 3.5-5.6ChemistriesALP (U/L) — 12 (4-56)ALT (U/L) 106 (97-115) 31 (9-98)Anion gap — 17 (14-23)AST (U/L) 220 (111-433) 121 (40-381)Bicarbonate (mmol/L) — 6 (3-8)Bile acids (µmol/L) — 1 (0-6)BUN (mg/dL) 28 2 (0.2-5)Calcium (mg/dL) 9.1 (4.3-13.5) 8.7 (7.8-11.4)Chloride (mmol/L) — 114 (108-119)Cholesterol (mg/dL) — 149 (94-282)Creatine kinase (U/L) 4515 (0-10,000) 4123 (80-9014)Creatinine (mg/dL) — —GGT (U/L) — 1 (0-6)Glucose (mg/dL) 35.7 (15-93) 37 (22-65)LDH (U/L) — 359 (41-1675)Phosphorus (mg/dL) 8.83 (3.1-16.3) 6.1 (3.5-7.7)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassius auratus)70 Koi (Cyprinus carpio)70,160,232Potassium (mmol/L) 2.16 (0.1-5.6) 1.4 (0-2.9)Protein, total (g/dL) 2.03 (0.1-4.02) 3.4 (2.7-4.3) Albumin (g/dL) 1.9 (0.3-3.2) 2 (1.4-2.7) Globulin (g/dL) 0.69 (0.3-1.2) 0.9 (0.6-1.1) A:G (ratio) 2.75 1.1 (0.8-1.6)Sodium (mmol/L) 139 (126-176) 133 (110-143)Total bilirubin (mg/dL) — 0.5 (0.2-2)Uric acid (mg/dL) 0.08 (0-0.2) 0.1 (0-0.5)Measurement Striped bass89,151 Palme�o bass101,102Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232Salinity 0 ppt 0 pptHematologyPCV (%) 42 (34-48) 20-34RBC (106/µL) — 2.42-4.96Hgb (g/dL) — 4.2-8.4MCV (fL) — 65-117MCH (pg) — 16.2-24.8MCHC (g/dL) — 19-26WBC (103/µL) — 32.6-118.2 Neutrophils (103/µL) — 0-6.8 Lymphocytes (small and large) (103/µL) — 23.7-125.1 Monocytes (103/µL) — 0-3.2 Eosinophils (%) — 0-2.7ChemistriesALP (U/L) — 72Anion gap 29 ± 5 24 ± 1AST (U/L) 23 ± 6 45 ± 21Calcium (mg/dL) 10.6 ± 0.1 11.1 ± 0.2Chloride (mmol/L) 143 ± 2 144 ± 2Cholesterol (mg/dL) — 164Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.5 ± 0 0.3 ± 0Glucose (mg/dL) 100 ± 28 118 ± 10******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232LDH (U/L) 221 ± 92 164 ± 54Osmolality (mOsm/kg) 348 ± 2 356 ± 2Phosphorus (mg/dL) 10 ± 0.3 9.8 ± 0.2Potassium (mmol/L) 3.9 ± 0.1 3.3 ± 0.2Protein, total (g/dL) 3.8 ± 0.1 3.0 Albumin (g/dL) 1.1 ± 0 1.3 Globulin (g/dL) — 1.7 A:G (ratio) 0.4 ± 0 0.76Sodium (mmol/L) 181 ± 4 151Total CO2 (mmol/L) 9.5 ± 1 10.7 ± 0.9Measurement aRed pacu191,229 Rainbow trout41,100,212Salinity 0 ppt 0 pptHematologyPCV (%) 26 (22-32) 34.8-56.9RBC (106/µL) 1.7 (1.2-2.9) 1.4-1.8Hgb (g/dL) — 6.4-9.5MCV (fL) — 192-393MCH (pg) — 35.3-62.4MCHC (g/dL) — 14.2-18.9WBC (103/µL) 33.5 (13.6-52.3) 9.9 ± 1.3 Heterophils (%) 5.2 (0.3-36.7) — Lymphocytes (%) 84 (53-96) — Monocytes (%) 4.0 (0.8-11.2) — Eosinophils (%) 0.3 (0.3-0.7) —ChemistriesAnion gap 6.9 (1.2-12.5) —ALP (U/L) 31AST (U/L) 49 (0-125) 102BUN (mg/dL) — —Calcium (mg/dL) 10.8 (9.5-12.5) 2.3Chloride (mmol/L) 139 (146-159) 137Cholesterol (mg/dL) — 144Creatine kinase (U/L) — —******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0.2-0.4) 0.4Glucose (mg/dL) — 103Magnesium (mg/dL) 2.3Lactate (mmol/L) — —LDH (U/L) 238 (65-692) —Osmolality (mOsm/kg) — —Phosphorus (mg/dL) 7.3 (4.1-8.9) 10.5Potassium (mmol/L) 3.9 (2.7-5) 2.3Protein, total (g/dL) — 2.7 Albumin (g/dL) 0.9 (0.5-1) 1.2 Globulin (g/dL) 1.5Sodium (mmol/L) 150 (146-159) 152Total CO2 (mmol/L) 7.5 (6-10) —Measurement aMbuna cichlid213 aRed lionfish11Salinity 0 ppt 32 pptHematologyPCV (%) 25.3 (21-29.5) 34 (27-44)RBC (106/µL) 2.3 (1.7-2.7) —Hgb (g/L) 75 (63-91.3) —MCV (fL) 113.8 (95.3-132.4) —MCH (pg) 33.6 (26.9-40.3) —MCHC (g/dL) 3.0 (2.7-3.2) —WBC (103/µL) 33.2 (22.9-55.2) — Granulocytes (103/µL) 1.48 (0.3-2.4) 4.0 (2.0-8.2) Lymphocytes (103/µL) 30.9 (21.2-52.4) 21.5 (7-67) Monocytes (103/µL) — 27.5 (16-51) Eosinophils (%) — —ChemistriesALP (U/L) 44.5 (30.1-61.9) 35 (16-66)ALT (U/L) 59.8 (34.7-236.1) 1.0 (1.0-7.0)Amylase (U/L) — 1 (1-2)AST (U/L) 12.5 (3.5-46.3) 69 (24-236)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232Calcium (mg/dL) 10.4 (10.0-10.8) 10.8 (9.4-28.4)Chloride (mmol/L) 147 (143-150) 149 (142-162)Cholesterol (mg/dL) 410 (263-537) 159 (75-252)Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.5 (0.3-1.1) 0.1 (0.1-0.2)Creatine kinase (U/L) — 860 (198-4372)Glucose (mg/dL) 43.2 (37.9-48.6) 26.5 (10.0-49.0)Lipase (U/L) — 8 (2-32)Magnesium (mg/dL) — 3.6 (2.6-5.5)Phosphorus (mg/dL) 4.6 (4.0-5.0) 10.7 (7.9-20.8)Potassium (mmol/L) 3.1 (2.4-3.6) 2.9 (1.9-4.0)Protein, total (g/dL) 3.9 (3.5-4.6) 4.0 (2.2-6.3) Albumin (g/L) 0.9 (0.8-1.0) 1.0 (0.6-2.0) Globulin (g/L) 2.9 (2.6-3.7) 2.9 (2.2-4.5) A:G (ratio) 0.33 0.3 (0.2-0.5)Sodium (mmol/L) 161 (156.3-163.4) 172 (168-177)Triglycerides (mg/dL) — 298 (59-661)Measurement Tilapia99,100 aChannel catfish225,226Salinity 0 ppt 0 pptHematologyPCV (%) 33 (27-37) 31 (27-54)RBC (106/µL) 6.1 (4.8-7.8) 3 (15-41)Hgb (g/dL) 8.2 (7.0-9.8) 7.0 (4.4-10.9)MCV (fL) 136 (115-183) 108 (88.6-186.7)MCH (pg) 34.9 (28.3-42.3) —MCHC (g/dL) 25.7 (22-29) 22 (15.7-28.7)WBC (103/µL) 7.6 35.7 (8.9-124.0) Neutrophils (103/µL) 1.8 (0.56-9.9) 19.0 (4.4-86.8) Lymphocytes (total) (103/µL) — 9.2 (1.4-23.6) Lymphocytes (small) (103/µL) 61 (6.8-136) — Lymphocytes (large) (103/µL) 10.7 (2.9-31) — Monocytes (103/µL) 1.5 (0.4-4.3) 5.2 (0.7-14.7) Eosinophils (103/µL) 0.3 (0.03-1.6) —******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232 Basophils (103/µL) — 1.4 (0-7.1)Thromobocytes (103/µL) 53 (25-85) 78 (14-147)—Thromobocyte-like cells (103/µL) 1.0 (0.03-4.3) —ChemistriesALP (U/L) 26 (16-38) —ALT (U/L) — —AST (U/L) 18 (5-124) —Calcium (mg/dL) 11.6 (10.4-18.9) 10.8 (9.2-13.2)Chloride (mmol/L) 141 (136-147) 108 (80-147)Cholesterol (mg/dL) 156 (64-299) —Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.2-1.1 —Glucose (mg/dL) 52 (39-96) 35 (17-86)Magnesium (mg/dL) 2.5 (2.3-2.8) 2.9 (2.4-4.9)Phosphorus (mg/dL) 4.6 (3.5-7.2) —Potassium (mmol/L) 3.9 (3.2-4.3) 3.0 (2.1-4.8)Protein, total (g/dL) 2.9 (2.3-3.6) 4.2 (2.6-6.6) Albumin (g/dL) 1.2 (1.0-1.6) — Globulin (g/dL) 1.6 (1.3-2.1) — A:G (ratio) 0.75 —Sodium (mmol/L) 150 (140-156) 141 (132-155)Total bilirubin (mg/dL) 0 (0-0.1) —Measurement Zebrafish147 Iridescent shark/stripedcatfish61Salinity 0 ppt 0 pptHematologyPCV (%) — 30 (24-36)RBC (106/µL) 3.02 (2.89-3.25) 2.27 (1.79-2.75)Hgb (g/dL) — —MCV (fL) — 132 (106-157)MCH (pg) — —MCHC (g/dL) — —WBC (103/µL) — 65.3 (36.3-94.3)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232Lymphocyte (% for zebrafish; 103/µL foriridescent shark)83 (71-92) 39.5 (19.0-60.0)Monocytes (% for zebrafish; 103/µL foriridescent shark))9.7 (5-15) 1.6 (0-7.5)Neutrophils (%) 7.1 (2-18) —Eosinophils (%) 0.15 (0-2) —Granulocytes (103/µL) — 1.6 (4.5-18.2)Thrombocytes (103/µL) — 49.8 (26.3-73.3)ChemistriesALP (U/L) 2 (0-10) 54 (33-74)ALT (U/L) 367 (343-410) —AST (U/L) — 135 20-1236)Calcium (mg/dL) 14.7 (12.3-18.6) 12.4 (10.8-15.6)Chloride (mmol/L) — 124 (120-134)Cholesterol (mg/dL) — 145 (108-259)Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.7 (0.5-0.9) 0.05 (0-0.09)Glucose (mg/dL) 82 (62-91) 110 (77-155)Magnesium (mg/dL) — 2.7 (2.2-3.4)Phosphorus (mg/dL) 22.3 (20.3-24.3) 6.2 (4.0-9.0)Potassium (mmol/L) 6.8 (5.2-7.7) 4.1 (3.3-5.0)Protein, total (g/dL) 5.2 (4.4-5.8) 36 (29-44) Albumin (g/dL) 3.0 (2.7-3.3) 9 (7-11) Globulin (g/dL) — 27 (22-33) A:G (ratio) — 0.32 (0.27-0.39)Sodium (mmol/L) — 141 (135-147)Measurement Shortnose sturgeon121 Winter flounder47Salinity 0 ppt 32 pptHematologyPCV (%) 33 (26-46) 25 (19-31)RBC (106/µL) 0.83 (0.65-1.09) 2.22 (1.50-3.14)Hgb (g/dL) 7.3 (5.7-8.7) 6.0 (5.0-7.4)MCV (fL) 400 (307-520) 116.4 (86.8-227.3)MCH (pg) 89 (66-107.1) 27 (22-39)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232MCHC (g/dL) 23 (15-30) 24.0 (10.8-28.9)WBC (cells/µL) 60,144 (28,376-90,789) 37,500 (13,200-145,000)Neutrophils (total) 11,153 (3,758-33,592) 3,700 (0-26,000)Lymphocytes (small) (cells/µL) 26,243 (9,063-56,656) 31,000 (9,600-128,200)Lymphocytes (large) (cells/µL) 5,003 (2,122-10,435) 1,800 (0-12,300)Monocytes (cells/µL) 2,854(0-7,137) 1,000 (0-4,600)Eosinophils (cells/µL) 536 (0-1,544) —Thromobocytes (cells/µL) 74,650 (32,205-122,179) 41,900 (23,000-124,800)Thromobocyte-like cells (cells/µL) 14,504 (6,863-23,046) —ChemistriesALP (U/L) 206 (47-497) 13 (7-27)ALT (U/L) 6 (0-40)AST (U/L) 174 (90-311) 57 (5-318)BUN (mg/dL) — 7.4 (1-12)Calcium (mg/dL) 8.3 (6.6-12.1) 12.4 (10.6-15.0)Chloride (mmol/L) 115 (106-121) 170 (156-194)Cholesterol (mg/dL) 83 (42-133) (222->400)Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.3 (0.0-1.4) 0.3 (0.1-1.0)Glucose (mg/dL) 54 (37-74) 49 (17-224)Magnesium (mg/dL) 2.0 (1.6-2.3) 2.3 (1.5-3.9)Phosphorus (mg/dL) 6.5 (5.1-8.1) 9.7 (4.9-11.7)Potassium (mmol/L) 3.3 (2.9-3.7) 0.8 (0.5-2.8)Protein, total (g/dL) 4.0 (2.7-5.3) 3.5 (2.6-4.7) Albumin (g/dL) 1.3 (0.8-1.7) 1.1 (0.8-1.5) Globulin (g/dL) 2.7 (1.8-3.7) 2.4 (1.6-3.4)Sodium (mmol/L) 135 (124-141) 184 (171-200)Total bilirubin (mg/dL) 0.1 (0.0-0.1) 0.1 (0.1-0.3)Measurement aBonnethead shark79,88 Cownose ray55Salinity 32 ppt 32 pptHematologyPCV (%) 25 (22-35) —RBC (106/µL) — 0.51 (0.26-0.72)WBC (103/µL) 51 (35-83) 0.55 (0.16-1.98)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232Heterophils (103/µL) 10.6 (4.7-19.1) —Fine segmented eosinophilic granulocytes(cells/µL)— 23 (0-72)Fine non-segmented eosinophilicgranulocytes (cells/µL)— 12 (0-55)Lymphocytes (cells/µL) 20.5 × 103 546 (144-1881) (10.4-37.5 × 103) Monocytes (cells/µL) 1.8 × 103 6 (0-26) (0.47-4.6 × 103) Eosinophils (cells/µL) 2.2 × 103 — (0.34-12.1 × 103) Coarse segmented eosinophilic granulocytes(cells/µL)— 27 (0-77)Coarse non-segmented eosinophilicgranulocytes (cells/µL)— 22 (0-83)ChemistriesAnion gap −5.8 (−15.7-+7.5) —ALP (U/L) 33 (22-46)AST (U/L) 42 (15-132) 39 (15-78)Bicarbonate (mmol/L) 3 (0-5) —BUN (mg/dL) 2812 (2644-2992) 1154 (1010-1270)Calcium (mg/dL) 16.8 (15.8-18.2) 4.2 (3.75-4.85)Chloride (mmol/L) 290 (277-304) 255 (192-290)Cholesterol (mg/dL) — 166 (118-321)Creatine kinase (U/L) 82 (18-725) —Creatinine (µmol/L) — 8.84Glucose (mg/dL) 184 (155-218) 2.78 (1.94-4.0)LDH (U/L) <5 (<5-11) —Osmolality (mOsm/kg) 1094 (1056-1139) —Phosphorus (mg/dL) 8.8 (5.9-12.7) 5.8 (4.4-7.1)Potassium (mmol/L) 7.3 (5.7-9.2) 1.5 (1-2.4)Protein, total (g/dL) 2.9 (2.2-4.3) 2.9 (1.9-4.2) Albumin (g/dL) 0.4 (0.3-0.5) 0.6 (0.5-0.8) ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement Goldfish (Carassiusauratus)70Koi (Cyprinuscarpio)70,160,232 Globulin (g/dL) 2.6 (1.9-3.8) 2.2 (1.4-3.6) A:G (ratio) 0.1 (0.1-0.2) 0.29 (0.17-0.38)Sodium (mmol/L) 282 (273-292) 276 (208-312)Total bilirubin (mg/dL) — 0.2 (0.1-0.3)Triglyceride (mmol/L) — 9.2 (3.2-22.8)aValues listed are means except where indicated with an a, which are medians. In somecases, the data are not based on a large sample size. These values are only meant to beguidelines. Age of fish, time of year, and water temperature may all affect “normal” clinicalpathologicaldata.bSee Table 2-7 for scientific names of species listed in this table.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 2.7Scientific Names of Common Names as Listed in Preceding Tables.Common Name Scientific NameAngelfish, freshwater Pterophyllum spp.Barramundi Lates calcariferBarb, tiger Puntigrus tetrazonaBass, black sea Centropristis striataBass, European sea = sea bass Dicentrarchus labraxBass, largemouth Micropterus salmoidesBass, palme�o Morone saxatilis × M. chrysopsBass, smallmouth Micropterus dolomieuBass, striped Morone saxatilisBe�a = Siamese fighting fish Be�a splendensBream, sea = gilthead sea bream Sparus aurataBream, sharpnose sea = sharpnose sea bream = sharpsnout seabreamDiplodus puntazzoBream, white sea Diplodus sargusCarp = common or European carp Cyprinus carpioCarp, Crucian Carassius carassiusCarp, fringe-lipped peninsula Labeo fimbriatusCarp, grass Ctenopharyngodon idellaCarp, major South Asian Catla catlaCichlid, banded Heros severusCichlid, convict Amatitlania nigrofasciataCichlid, mbuna Metriaclima greshakeiCod = Atlantic cod Gadus morhuaCatfish, African Clarias gariepinusCatfish, Amur Silurus asotusCatfish, channel Ictalurus punctatusCatfish, Korean Silurus asotusCatfish, striped = iridescent shark Pangasianodon hypophthalmusCatfish, suckermouth Hypostomus spp.Catfish, tra Pangasianodon hypophthalmusDanio, giant Devario aequipinnatus******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Common Name Scientific NameDogfish, smooth Mustelus canisDrum, red Sciaenops ocellatusEel Anguilla spp.Eel, European Anguilla anguillaFlounder, olive Paralichthys olivaceusFlounder, winter Pseudopleuronectes americanusKoi Cyprinus carpioGoldfish Carassius auratusGourami Trichogaster trichopterusGourami, blue Trichogaster spp.Grouper, orange-spo�ed Epinephelus coioidesHalibut = Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossusHalibut, California Paralichthys californicusKingfish, yellow = yellowtail amberjack Seriola lalandiLeatherjacket Aluterus monocerosLionfish, red Pterois volitansLumpfish Cyclopterus lumpusMedaka (Japanese rice fish) Orizias latipesOscar Astronotus ocellatusPacu, red Piaractus brachypomusPacu, small-scaled Piaractus mesopotamicusPerch, European Perca fluviatilisPike, northern Esox luciusPike, walleye Sander vitreousPike perch Sander luciopercaPiranha e.g., Pygocentrus na�ereriPlatyfish, southern Xiphophorus maculatusPorgy, red Pagrus pagrusRay, cownose Rhinoptera bonasusRockfish, copper Sebastes caurinusRohu Labeo rohitaSalmon, Atlantic Salmo salarSeabass, white Atractoscion nobilisSea bream = gilt-head sea bream Sparus aurata******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Common Name Scientific NameShark, bamboo Chiloschyllium plagiosumShark, bonnethead Sphyrna tiburoShark, iridescent = striped catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmusShark, nursehound Scyliorhinus stellarisShark, red-tail black = redtail sharkminnow Epalzeorhynchos bicolorShark, sandbar Carcharhinus plumbeusShark, white-spo�ed bamboo Chiloschyllium plagiosumShiners, golden Notemigonus crysoleucasSilver dollar Metynnis spp.Snook, common Centropomus undecimalisStickleback Gasterosteus aculeatusSturgeon, Amur Acipenser schrenckiiSturgeon, Gulf of Mexico Acipenser oxyrinchusSturgeon, lake Acipenser fulvescensSturgeon, shortnose Acipenser brevirostrumSurgeonfish, ocean Acanthurus bahianusSwordtail Xiphophorus spp.Tench Tinca tincaTetra, cardinal Paracheirodon axelrodiTetra, black Gymnocorymbus terne�iTetra, serpae Hyphessobrycon equesThreadfin, Pacific Polydactylus sexfilisTilapia, Mozambique Oreochromis mossambicusTilapia, Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus andhybridsTrout, brown Salmo tru�aTrout, rainbow Onchorhynchus mykissTurbot Scophthalmus maximusWalleye Sander vitreousWrasse, corkwing Symphodus melopsWrasse, goldsinny Ctenolabrus rupestrisYellowtail, California Seriola dorsalisZebrafish Danio rerio******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******References1. AADAP/FDA. Web site:www.fws.gov/fisheries/aadap/inads/Diquat-INAD-10-969.html. Accessed April 28, 2021.2. AADAP-FWS FDA INAD. Web site:www.fws.gov/fisheries/aadap/inads.html. AccessedApril 28, 2021.3. AADAP-FWS FDA INAD. Web site:www.fws.gov/fisheries/aadap/inads/Chloramine-T-INAD-9321.html. Accessed April 28, 2021.4. Alderman DJ. Malachite green: A pharmacokineticstudy in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss(Walbaum). J Fish Dis. 1993;16:297–311.5. Allender MC, Kastura M, George R, et al.Bioencapsulation of praziquantel in adult Artemia. JBioanal Biomed. 2010;2:96–99.6. Allender MC, Kastura M, George R, et al.Bioencapsulation of metronidazole in adult brineshrimp (Artemia sp.). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2011;42:241–246.7. Allender MC, Kastura M, George R, et al.Bioencapsulation of fenbendazole in adult Artemia. JExot Pet Med. 2012;21:207–212.8. Aly S, Fathi M, Youssef EM, et al. 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Haematological andbiochemical reference intervals for farmed channelcatfish. J Fish Biol. 2007;71:383–388.226. Tavares-Dias M, de Moraes FR. Leukocyte andthrombocyte reference values for channel catfish(Ictalurus punctatus Raf), with an assessment ofmorphologic, cytochemical, and ultrastructuralfeatures. Vet Clin Pathol. 2007;36:49–54.227. Thomas A, Dawson MR, Ellis H, et al. Praziquanteldegradation in marine aquarium water. PeerJ.2016;4:e1857.228. Thomasen JM. Hydrogen peroxide as a delousingagent for Atlantic salmon. In: Boxshall GA, Defaye D,******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******eds. Pathogens of Wild and Farmed Fish: Sea Lice;Ellis Horwood, Chichester, England; 1993:290–295.229. Tocidlowski ME, Lewbart GA, Stoskopf MK.Hematologic study of red pacu (Colossomabrachypomum). Vet Clin Path. 1997;26:119–125.230. Touraki M, Niopas I, Ladoukakis M, Karagiannis V.Efficacy of flumequine administeredby bath orthrough medicated nauplii of Artemia fransiscana (L.)in the treatment of vibriosis in sea bass larvae.Aquaculture. 2010;306:146–152.231. Treves-Brown KM. Applied Fish Pharmacology(AquacultureSeries; 2000;3, Kluwer AcademicPublishers, Boston, MA.232. Tripathi NK, Latimer KS, Brunley VV. Hematologicreference intervals for koi (Cyprinus carpio), includingblood cell morphology, cytochemistry, andultrastructure. Vet Clin Pathol. 2004;33:74–83.233. Tsantilas H, Galatos AD, Athanassopoulou F, et al.Efficacy of 2-phenoxyethanol as an anaesthetic for twosize classes of white sea bream, Diplodus sargus L., andsharp snout sea bream, Diplodus puntazzo C.Aquaculture. 2006;253:64–70.234. Tyrpenou AE, Ko�amanis YP, Alexis NM.Flumequine depletion from muscle plus skin tissue ofgilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) fed flumequinemedicated feed in seawater at 18 and 24°C.Aquaculture. 2003;220:633–642.235. 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A comparison ofmetronidazole treatments of hexamitiasis in angelfish.Proc Int Assoc Aquat Anim Med; 1991:110–114.240. Whitaker BR. Preventive medicine programs forfish. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo and WildAnimal Medicine: Current Therapy 4; Saunders,Philadelphia, PA; 1999:163–181.241. Wildgoose WH, Lewbart GA. Therapeutics. In:Wildgoose WH, eds. Manual of Ornamental Fish, 2nded., British Small Animal Veterinary Association,Gloucester, England; 2001:237–258.242. Willoughby LG, Roberts RJ. Towards strategic useof fungicides against Saprolegnia parasitica in salmonidfish hatcheries. J Fish Dis. 1992;15:1–13.243. Woynarovich E, Horvath L. The ArtificialPropagation of Warm-Water Finfishes-A Manual forExtension Fisheries, Rome, Italy: FAO Technical Paper;1980;201.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******244. Xu N, Ai X, Liu Y, et al. Comparativepharmacokinetics of norfloxacin nicotinate in commoncarp (Cyprinus carpio) and crucian carp (Carassiusauratus) after oral administration. 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Yanong RP.E, Curtis EW, Simmons R, et al.Pharmacokinetic studies of florfenicol in koi carp andthreespot gourami Trichogaster trichopterus after oraland intramuscular treatment. J Aquat Anim Health.2005;17:129–137.251. Yuan J, Li RQ, Shi Y, et al. Pharmacokinetics ofoxytetracycline in yellow catfish (Pelteobagrusfulvidraco) (Richardson, 1846) with a single and******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******multiple-dose oral administration. J Appl Ichthyol.2014;30:109–113.252. Zhang Q, Li X. Pharmacokinetics and residueelimination of oxytetracycline in grass carp.Ctenopharyngodon idellus. Aquaculture. 2007;272:140–145.253. Zhao D, Ke C, Liu Q, et al. Elimination kinetics ofeugenol in grass carp in a simulated transportationse�ing. BMC Vet Res. 2017;13:346–351.254. Zhu Y, Tan T, Wang C, et al. Pharmacokinetics andtissue residues of marbofloxacin in crucian carp(Carassius auratus) after oral administration. Aquac Res.2009;40:696–709.255. Zimmerman DM, Armstrong DL, Curro TG, et al.Pharmacokinetics of florfenicol after a singleintramuscular dose in white-spo�ed bamboo sharks(Chiloscyllium plagiosum). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2006;37:165–173.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******C H A P T E R 3******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******AmphibiansNatalie D. Mylniczenko | Leigh Ann Clayton******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******General commentary on amphibian pharmacotherapeutics:• 1 mg/L=1 ppm=0.0001%. Where indicated, the originalformat is listed.• Temperature is a critical factor in the pharmacokineticsof medications in amphibians; ensure animals are******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******managed within the preferred active range for thespecies.• Bath or immersion treatments should be in the normalwater for the animal where possible, temperaturemanaged, pH appropriate, and changed daily.• Bath or topical drug application often has highlyvariable absorption.• Subcutaneous (SC) injections in anurans are effectivelylymphatic injections, the most accessible site is thedorsal lymph sac.90• For all sections, the following abbreviations are used:• Pharmacokinetic (PK) or pharmacodynamic (PD)study.• Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC).• ED50 = dose that gives 50% analgesic effects.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.1Antimicrobial Agents Used in Amphibians.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAmikacin 5 mg/kg IMq36h905-10 mg/kg SC,IM, ICeq24-48h89Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus)/PKCarbenicillin 100-200 mg/kgSC, IM, ICeq24h orq72h90 Ceftazidime 20 mg/kg SConce54/PK20 mg/kg IMq48-72h90Eastern hellbenders (Cryptobranchusalleganiensis alleganiensis)/PK; achievedconcentrations greater than MIC for 5days54Chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg SC,IM, ICe q12-24h90Egyptian toads (Sclerophrys regularis)/PK;aplastic anemia-like findings at ∼125mg/kg PO q24h × 12 wk28 20 mg/L bathchangeddaily90 Ciprofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO,ICe q24h89-91 500-750 mg/75L x 6-8 hrbath q24h91 Doxycycline (Psi�avet,Vetafarm)5-50 mg/kg POq24h9050 mg/kg IMq7d90 Enrofloxacin 5-10 mg/kg PO,SC, IMq24h90Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus)/PK; ICeand topical routes also used but withlimited data90 10 mg/kgtopically onthoracicdorsum81Coqui frogs (Eleutherodactylus coqui)/PK;detectable tissue concentration for >24hr81 10 mg/kg SC,IM29,37African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)/PK; nosignificant difference between routes;29suggest q24h dosing37******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 500 mg/L × 6-8hr bathq24h90 Gentamicin 2-4 mg/kg IMq72h × 4treatments90 2.5 mg/kg IMq72h77Coldwater salamander (Necturus sp.)/PK;supports q72h dosing at 3°C (37.4°F),more frequent dosing may be needed athigher temperature77 3 mg/kg IMq24h90Leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens)/PK at22.2°C (72°F): at higher temperatures,serum concentrations will be lower90 Topically toeyes91Ocular infections; dilute to 2 mg/mLsystemic absorption possible; monitortotal mg/kg dosage to avoid toxicity59Metronidazole 12-60 mg/kgtopicallyq24h × 5-10days90 20-50 mg/kgPO q24-48h90 50 mg/L × 24 hrbath90 Ofloxacin 1 drop q2-4h × 10 days(0.3%ophthalmicsolution)89Keratitis; may also be applied topically towoundsOxytetracycline 25 mg/kg SC,IM q24h9050 mg/kg POq12-24h90 50-100 mg/kgIM q48h90Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus)/PK;especially useful in cases of chlamydiosis(use up to 30 days)90 100 mg/L × 1 hrbath91 1 g/kg feed × 7days90Most useful with axolotls and Xenopus spp.fed in compounded pelleted diet90Silver sulfadiazine Topically q24-48h90 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsSulfadiazine 132 mg/kg POq24h90 Sulfamethazine 1000 mg/L bathto effect90 Tetracycline 50 mg/kg POq12h90150 mg/kg POq24h × 5-7days90 167 mg/kg (5mg/30 g)PO q12h × 7days90 Trimethoprim/sulfadiazine 15-20 mg/kg IMq48h90 Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole 15 mg/kg POq24h91 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.2Antifungal Agents Used in Amphibians.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAmphotericin B 1 mg/kg ICe q24h91 Internal mycoses; acutely toxic to Majorcan midwifetoads (Alytes muletensis) tadpoles at 8 µg/mL bathin a trial for chytridiomycosis treatment49Benzalkoniumchloride0.25 mg/L × 72 hrbath902 mg/L × 1 hr bathq24h91Saprolegnia sp.Chloramphenicol 10-30 mg/L ascontinuous bathreplaced freshdaily for up to 30days90Egyptian toad (Sclerophrys regularis)/PK; aplasticanemia-like findings at ∼125 mg/kg PO q24h × 12wk28 20 mg/L continuousbath × 14 days95Australian green frog (Ranoideacaerulea)/chytridiomycosis 30 mg/L continuousbath for up to 30days90Chytridiomycosis; safe for larvae, recentmetamorphs, and adults90Fluconazole 60 mg/kg PO q24h91 Hyperthermia,elevatedenclosuretemperature30°C (86°F) × 10days19Chytridiomycosis; American bullfrog (Lithobatescatesbeianus), northern cricket frog (Acris crepitans) 37°C (98.6°F) forunder 16 hr86Chytridiomycosis; red-eyed tree frog (Ranoideachloris)Itraconazole — Chytridiomycosis;4,18,60 some species andfroglets/tadpoles are sensitive (fatalities)particularly at 0.01%; recommend testing a smallnumber of animals in an unreported speciesand/or use lower doses; Sporanox Oral Solution(Janssen Pharmaceutica), for best results;60 note:0.0001% = 1 mg/L, 0.001% = 10 mg/L, 0.01% = 100mg/L 0.001% and 0.01%itraconazolebath65Panamanian golden frogs (Atelopus zeteki)/PK; 0.001%bath exceeded MIC but was highly variable inhalf life65 0.002% to 0.0025%(20-25 mg/L)bath x 5 min/dayx 10 days25Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum), rough-skinned newts (Taricha granulosa)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 0.0025% bath x 5min/day x 6days12Australian green tree frog (Ranoidea caerulea), coastalplains toad (Incillus nebulifer)/chytridiomycosis;authors suggest low dose reliably cures chytridwith fewer side effects than higher dose12 0.005-0.01% bath x 5min/day x 10days4Safe and effective treatment in most situations4 0.01% bath x 30min/day x 11days63Caecilians (Geotrypetes seraphini, Potomotyphluskaupii)/chytridiomycosis 0.01% (in bufferedsolution) bath × 5min/day × 11-14days33Multiple species/chytridiomycosis; clearedchytridiomycosis by PCR 14 days post treatment;some recurrence in 6-15 mo33 0.5-1.5 mg/L bath x 5min/day × 7days32Majorcan midwife toad (Alytes muletensis)tadpoles/chytridiomycosis; safe; varying levels ofdepigmentation observed in all individuals32 50 mg/L bath x 5min/day × 10days (SporanoxOral Solution,JanssenPharmaceutica)39Multiple species/chytridiomycosis; clearedchytridiomycosis in subclinical animals;confirmed with PCR39Ketoconazole Topical cream90 10-20 mg/kg POq24h90,91 Methylene blue 4 mg/L bath × 1hr/day90Saprolegnia sp.Miconazole Topical cream91 5 mg/kg ICeq24h × 14-28days90 Nystatin Topical cream(1%)90 Potassiumpermanganate200 mg/L bath x 5min/day90 Terbinafinehydrochloride(Lamisil AT,Novartis)0.005-0.01% (indistilled water)bath x 5min/day × 5 daysor 6 treatmentsover 10 days10Various species/PK, PD; chytridiomycosis; noadverse effects noted;10 recent studies (0.01% bath5 min/day x 5 days) showed limited efficacy inalpine tree frogs (Litoria verreauxii alpina) andcommon eastern froglets (Crinia signifera)66******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsVoriconazole(VFendinjectablesolution,Pfizer)1.25 µg/mL q24htopically viaspray × 7 days49Poison dart frogs, Iberian midwife toad (Alytescisternasii)/chytridiomycosis; appeared safe in A.cisternasii tadpoles49Voriconazole(V) + polymyxinE (P) + elevatedtemperature(T)(V) 12.5 µg/mL q24htopically viaspray + (P) 2000IU/mL × 10 minbath q12h + (T)20°C (68°F)continuous × 10days8Fire salamanders (Salamandrasalamandra)/Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans; noeffect of medications at 15°C (59°F)8******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.3Antiparasitic Agents Used in Amphibians.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAcriflavin 0.025% bath × 5 days90500 mg/L bath for 30 min90ProtozoaBenzalkoniumchloride2 mg/L bath x 1 hr/day toeffect90Saprolegnia sp.Febantel (incombination withpyrantel pamoateand praziquantel;Drontal Plus,Bayer)0.01 mL/1 g PO q2-3wk60 Create suspension from tablets for dogsat 2.25 mg/mL based on pyrantelcontent60Fenbendazole — Panacur 10% (100 mg/mL) (Merck) oralsolution; shake well to suspend;typically needs to be diluted 30-100 mg/kg PO60,90.91 Variable doses and frequencies have beenrecommended: once to q24h × 3-5days, repeat in 14-21 days Dust food items q24h x 5days, repeat in 2-3 wk7,60Houston toad (Anaxyrushoustonensis)/reduced nematode eggcounts; granules ground to fine dustfed q24h x 3 days for animals <20 g7Formalin (10%) — Do not use if skin is ulcerated; may betoxic to some species90 1.5 mL/L bath × 10 min/48 hrto effect90Protozoans 0.5% bath × 10 min once90 MonogeneansIvermectin — Caution: may cause flaccid paralysis orfatalities with overdosage;21 caffeineor physostigmine may ameliorateeffects90 0.2-0.4 mg/kg IM once90 2 mg/kg topically, repeat in2-3 wk45Leopard frogs (Lithobatespipiens)/nematode infections; dosagefatal if given IM45 2 mg/kg topically82 Túngara frogs (Engystomopspustulosus)/no difference compared todaily substrate changes to preventinfection by Strongyloides82******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 10 mg/L × 60 min bath, repeatq14d prn90,91 Levamisole — Caution: may cause paralysis in somespecies at suggested dosages;91caffeine or physostigmine mayameliorate effects90 6.5-13.5 mg/kg topically topelvic patch, repeat in 10days7Houston toad (Anaxyrushoustonensis)/reduced nematode eggcounts; diluted levamisole phosphate136.5 mg/mL in sterile water to 13.6mg/mL7 10 mg/kg IM, ICe, topically,repeat in 2 wk60Injectable formulation may be usedtopically60 12 mg/L bath × 4 daysrepeated at 10-14 days38African clawed frogs (Xenopuslaevis)/cutaneous nematodes; used≥4.2 L of tank water/frog to deliver 50-70 mg levamisole/frog; lowerexposure not effective38 100-300 mg/L × 24 hr bath,repeat in 1-2 wk91 Metronidazole 10 mg/kg PO q24h × 5-10days91 100 mg/kg PO q3d;90 100-150mg/kg PO, repeat in 2-3wk or prn90 50 mg/L × 24 hr bath91 Aquatic amphibians in enclosure water 500 mg/100 g feed × 3-4treatments90 Moxidectin (Cydectin,Wyeth-Ayerst)200 µg/kg SC at ∼ q4mo x 3treatments69Nematodes; incidentally reported in acase study69 0.4 mg/kg divided PO andintra-nasal q14d x 2treatments 0.4 mg/kgSC68Archey’s frog (Leiopelma archeyi)/PO andnasal for nasal nematode infection; SCroute prophylactic use68Oxfendazole 5 mg/kg PO90 Oxytetracycline 25 mg/kg SC, IM q24h90 50 mg/kg PO q12h90 1 g/kg feed × 7 days90 Paromomycin 50-75 mg/kg PO q24h90 Piperazine 50 mg/kg PO, repeat in 2wk90 ******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsPonazuril 30 mg/kg PO q24h × 30days90May be effective with less frequenttreatments90Potassiumpermanganate7 mg/L × 5 min bath q24h toeffect90Ectoparasitic protozoaPraziquantel 8-24 mg/kg PO, SC, ICe,topically, repeat q14d91 0.01 mL/1 g (10 mL/kg) POq2-3wk (in combinationwith fenbantel andpyrantel pamoate;Drontal Plus, Bayer)60Create oral suspension from tablets fordogs at 2.25 mg/mL pyrantelcomponent60 10 mg/L × 3 hr bath repeatq7-12d91 Pyrantel pamoate 0.01 mL/1 g (10 mL/kg) POq2-3wk (in combinationwith fenbantel andpraziquantel; DrontalPlus, Bayer)60Create oral suspension from tablets fordogs at 2.25 mg/mL pyrantelcomponent60Ronidazole 10 mg/kg PO q24h × 10days90Flagellated protozoa, amoebasSalt (sodium chloride) 4-6 g/L continuous bath90 5 g/L bath up to 12 hr4810 g/L bath up to 1 hr48Axolotls (Ambystomamexicanum)/immediate negativeclinical effects in baths >20 g/L48 6 g/L × 5-10 min bathq24h × 3-5 days90Ectoparasitic protozoa 25 g/L × ≤ 10 min bath90 Ectoparasitic protozoaSelamectin(Revolution,Zoetis)6 mg/kg topically on dorsumover pelvic girdle24Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus)/PK;keep out of water 5 min until skindry24 6 mg/kg or 60 mg/kg q7d × 3days topically9Lemur leaf frogs (Agalynchnislemur)/dissolved in isopropyl alcohol;ineffective on Rhabdias sp. infectioneven at high dose9Sulfadiazine 132 mg/kg PO q24h90 Sulfamethazine 1000 mg/L bath90 Thiabendazole 50-100 mg/kg PO, repeat in 2wk prn90 100 mg/L bath, repeat in 2wk90Verminous dermatitisTrimethoprim/sulfa 3 mg/kg PO, SC, IM q24h90,91 Coccidiosis******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.4Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Amphibians. ED50 = dosethat gives 50% analgesic effectsAgent Dosage Species/CommentsAlfaxalone 5 mg/L bath forinduction; 30 µLdrops brachial formaintenance51Mexican axolotl (Ambystomamexicanum)/surgical depth; 15 minrecovery, n = 151 10-17.5 mg/kg IM62 Bullfrogs (Lithobatescatesbeianus)/immobilization; notsurgical depth; dose dependent timeto recumbency and time to recovery;no effect by bath at 2000 mg/L for 30min62 15, 20, and 30 mg/kgIM16Spanish ribbed newts (Pleurodeleswaltl)/sedation and muscle relaxation;higher doses resulted in decreasedinduction time16 18 mg/kg IM, IV, ICe36 African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)/deepsedation for 1-3 hr (IM, IV), 10-60 minICe; no effect via bath at 18 mg/L36 20-30 mg/kg IM72 Australian tree frog species/initial effectwithin 10 min; duration of effect 25-100 min; insufficient anesthesia as soleagent for painful procedures72 200 mg/L in fresh waterbuffered bath2Fire-bellied toads (Bombinaorientalis)/induction in 14 ± 4 min;variable duration of anesthesia up to30 min; insufficient anesthesia forpainful procedures2Alfaxalone(A)/midazolam(M)/dexmedetomidine(D)(A) 20 mg/kg + (M) 40mg/kg + (D) 5 mg/kgSC93Blue poison dart frogs (Dendrobatestinctorius azureus)/gastric prolapses inseveral animals93Alfaxalone (A)/morphine(M)(A) 3 mg/100 mL + (M) 5mg/100 mL bath1Fire-bellied toads (Bombinaorientalis)/anesthetic induction andantinociception; alfaxalone at sameamount with butorphanol 2.5 mg/100mL had insufficient antinociception1Atipamezole 50 mg/kg SC93 Blue poison dart frogs (Dendrobatestinctorius azureus)93******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsBenzocaine Bath (in deionizedwater) to effect: 50mg/L bath90200-500 mg/L bath90Larvae/first dissolve in ethanol oracetone90 300 ppm (mg/L) bath71 East Asian bullfrog (Hoplobatrachusrugulosus)71 0.1% (1 g/L, optimal),0.5% (5 g/L), or 1%(10 g/L) bath73African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)73Bupivicaine 2 mg/kg topically orintra-incisional/dilute3:1 with sodiumbicarbonatesolution17Duration 3 hr; author recommends notexceeding5 mg/kg total dose either topically orintraincisional17Buprenorphine 38 mg/kg SC47 Leopard frogs (Lithobatespipiens)/analgesia >4 hr; ED5047 50 mg/kg ICe q24h x 3days40Eastern red-spo�ed newts (Notophthalmusviridescens)/effective analgesiafollowing limb amputation; may take>1 hr for onset40 50 mg/kg ICe q24h x 2days46Axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum)/nosignificant difference from controlsduring behavioral assessment at 1, 6,12, 25, 30, and 48 hr46Butorphanol 0.05, 1, or 5 mg/kg IV78 African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)/5mg/kg showed some nociceptiveeffects78 0.5 mg/L continuousbath x 3 days40Eastern red-spo�ed newts (Notophthalmusviridescens)/return to normal behaviorsfollowing limb amputation; may take>1 hr for onset40 0.50 or 0.75 mg/Lcontinuous bath x 2days, treatmentrefreshed at 24 hr46Axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum)/nosignificant difference from controlsduring behavioral assessment at 1, 6,12, 25, 30, and 48 hr46 25 mg/kg ICe79 Leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) duration 2-4hr79Clove oil (eugenol) 0.3 mL/L (≈ 310-318mg/L)90Deep anesthesia with 15 min bath;reversible gastric prolapse in 50% ofleopard frogs90******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 0.35 mL/L, used 200mL/frog34African clawed frogs (Xenopuslaevis)/frogs <10 g at 5 min hadsurgical plane of anesthesia for 15 min;frogs ∼30 g at 10 min exposure tobath had surgical plane of anesthesiafor 30 min34 350 mg/L bath71 East Asian bullfrogs (Hoplobatrachusrugulosus) 450 mg/L bath x 10 minexposure53Tiger salamanders (Ambystomatigrinum)/deep anesthesia induced in67% (8/12); rapid induction53Dexmedetomidine 40-120 mg/kg SC47 Leopard frogs (Rana pipiens)/analgesia >4hr lower dosage and >8 hr higherdosage; ED5047Etomidate 15, 22.5 (optimal), or 30mg/L bath73African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)Fentanyl 0.05, 0.25, or 0.5 mg/kgIV78African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)/notanalgesic78 0.5 mg/kg SC47 Leopard frogs (Rana pipiens)/analgesia>4hr; ED5047 0.8 µg/g SC (dorsallymph sac)75Leopard frogs (Rana pipiens)/analgesia;ED5075Flumazenil 0.05 mg/kg IM93 Blue poison dart frogs (Dendrobatestinctorius azureus)Flunixin meglumine(Banamine, MerckAnimal Health)3.3 mg/kgtopically/transdermalon dorsum67Marine toads (Rhinella marina)/PK; rapidlyabsorbed; plasma concentrationsexceeded ca�le therapeutic ranges67 25 mg/kg SC23,73 African clawed frogs (Xenopuslaevis)/analgesia in an experimentalse�ing at 24 hr; 50 mg/kg lethal inmany frogs73 25 mg/kg ICe79 Northern leopard frogs (Lithobatespipiens)/analgesia 2-4 hr79Isoeugenol (Aqui-S;Aqui-S New Zealand)0.54 µg/mLisoeugenol10, 20, or 50 µL/L74 Brown tree frog (Litoria ewingii)tadpoles/higher doses resulted infaster induction and longer recovery;20 µL/L most suitable balance of depthand duration74******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsIsoflurane — For larger amphibians, inhalantanesthesia with either chamberinduction or manual intubation andpositive pressure ventilation caninduce anesthesia; the amphibiantrachea is short, use caution not toenter bronchi or perforate Chamber 5% inductionand 2% maintenance6Mountain chicken frogs (Leptodactylusfallax) 0.28 mL/100 mL bath90 Induce in closed containerTopical mixture ofisoflurane (3 mL), K-YJelly (3.5 mL), andwater (1.5 mL)900.025 mL/g BW0.035 mL/g BWAnaxyrus spp., Bufo spp., African clawedfrogs (Xenopus laevis)/induce in closedcontainer, then remove excess90Topical mixture of 1.5parts distilled water,3.5 partsnonspermicidal jelly,and 1.8 partsisoflurane with 2 mLspread on inductioncontainer floor97Estimated dose rate of300 µL/g97American tree frogs (Dryophytescinereus)/induce in closed container,then remove excess from animal;erythematous lesions and signs ofsystemic illness noted followingapplication; authors do notrecommend97Ketamine 20-210 mg/kg IM91 Most species/inconsistent results 50-150 mg/kg SC,IM90 Most species 70-100 mg/kg IM91 Australian giant tree frogs (Nyctimystesinfrafrenatus), Australian green treefrogs (Ranoidea caerulea)/15-mininduction91 120 mg/kg IM88 Two-toed amphiumas (Amphiumameans)/20 min induction88Ketamine (K)/midazolam(M)/dexmedetomidine(D)(K) 100 + (M) 40 + (D) 5mg/kg93Blue poison dart frogs (Dendrobatestinctorius azureus)/gastric prolapses inseveral animals93Ketoprofen 1 mg/kg SC andtopically5Smoky jungle frogs (Leptodactyluspentadactylus)/PK; in plasma for 24 hrafter SC or topical administration5Lidocaine 2 mg/kg localinfiltration, dilute 3:1with sodiumbicarbonate solution,duration 30–60 min17Do not exceed 5 mg/kg total dose eithertopically or intraincisional17 5 or 50 mg/kg SC(hindleg)83Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus)/5 mg/kg,no loss of reflex; 50 mg/kg, loss ofrighting reflex; resolution in 4 hr83******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsMeloxicam 0.1 mg/kg IM q24h52 American bullfrogs (Lithobatescatesbeianus)/PD; decreased circulatingprostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levelsmeasured 24 hr after muscle biopsy52 0.2 mg/kg SC, topically5 Smoky jungle frogs (Leptodactyluspentadactylus)/PK; topical lacks reliableabsorption; SC does not producesustained plasma concentrations5 0.4-1 mg/kg PO, SC, ICeq24h89Antiinflammatory; presumptive analgesiaMeperidine 31.6 µg/g SC75 Northern leopard frog (Lithobatespipiens)/ED5075Metomidatehydrochloride30 mg/L bath x 60 min27 Leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens)/notrecommended for surgicalprocedures27Morphine 38-42 mg/kg SC47 Leopard frogs (Lithobatespipiens)/analgesia >4 hr47Naltrexone 1 mg/kg SC47 Propofol 10-30 mg/kg ICe90 Australian green tree frogs (Ranoideacaerulea)/use lower dosage for sedationor light anesthesia; induction within 30min; recovery in 24 hr90 35 mg/kg ICe53,87 Tiger salamanders (Ambystomatigrinum)/surgical anesthesia in 83%;variable induction and shortduration53Sonoran desert toads (Inciliusalvarius)/sedation only; did notachieve surgical plane of anesthesia87 88 mg/L bath35 African clawed frogs (Xenopuslaevis)/induced for 15 min, then rinsed;death at doses over 175 mg/L35 100-140 mg/kgtopically90Maroon-eyed tree frogs (Agalychnislitodryas)/for <50 g frog;90 unpublisheddata; 15-20 min at 100 mg/kg dose; 10-15 min at 140 mg/kg; sedation to deepanesthesia; remove and rinse wheninducedSevoflurane (topicalmixture: 1.5 partsdistilled water, 3.5parts nonspermicidaljelly, and 3 partssevoflurane)76,9737.5 µg/g of topicalmixture applied todorsumMarine toads (Rhinella marinus)/loss ofrighting reflex within ∼8 min; meanrecovery time 84 +/- 47 min76******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 2 mL topically97 American tree frogs (Dryophytescinereus)/induced in closed container;recovery 44 +/− 20 min (faster thantopical isoflurane jelly)97Tiletamine/zolazepam(Telazol, Fort Dodge)10-20 mg/kg IM44,90 Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), leopardfrogs (Lithobates pipiens)/resultsvariable between species; rapidrecovery; 50 mg/kg caused fatalities;not a good single anesthetic agent foranurans44,90Tricaine meth -ane-sul -fonate (MS-222)(Finquel, Argent)— Buffer water to a pH of 7.0-7.4; aerate;remove from the anesthetic bath afterinduction to prevent overdose; placeterrestrial amphibians on moistmaterials or in shallow water forrecovery (nose above the water); insome cases, anesthesia can bemaintained by dripping 100-200 mg/Lover the skin or by covering animalwith a paper towel or gauzemoistened with the anesthetic water90 100-200 mg/L bath toeffect90Larvae/induction 200-500 mg/L bath toeffect90Tadpoles, newts; induction in 15-30 min 500 mg/L or 2000 mg/Lbath42Australian green tree frogs/(Ranoideacaerulea)/mild sedation at 500 mg/L;surgical anesthesia at 2000 mg/L 500-2000 mg/L bath toeffect90Most gill-less adult species (unless verylarge)/induction 1000 mg/L bath87 Sonoran desert toads (Inciliusalvarius)/keep in bath until surgicalplane of anesthesia reached (13-30min)87 1000 mg/L bath71 East Asian bullfrogs (Hoplobatrachusrugulosus)71 1-2 g/L bath43 African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)/PK,PD; 30 min (1 g/L) or 60 min (2 g/L)43 0.2% (2 g/L) bath98 Mexican axolotl (Ambystomamexicanum)/0.1% no effects at 20 min;0.2% deeply anesthetized at 15 min for15-20 min; at 0.4%, 90-120 minrecoveries, deemed too long98******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 2 g/L in distilled waterand bicarbonate (toreach pH 6.5)57Red-backed salamanders (Plethodoncinereus)/3-5 min induction; rapidrecovery57 2-3 g/L bath to effect90,91 Toads/15-30 min induction90,91Xylazine 10 mg/kg ICe79 Leopard frogs (Lithobatespipiens)/analgesia 12-24 hr79Table 3.5Euthanasia Agents Used in Amphibians.Because of normal physiologic adaptations, unconsciousness and death should be ensured andeither definitive evidence of death (e.g., absolute cessation of cardiac movement) and/or use ofa secondary method (e.g., sever spinal cord, decapitation, pithing) should be considered.3Agent Dosage Species/CommentsBenzocaine 182 mg/kg (2 cm x1 mm of 20%gel)80 topicallyAfrican clawed frog (Xenopus laevis)/loss of reflexeswithin 7 min, cardiac arrest of 100% within 5 hr80 >250 mg/L bath56 Isoflurane Full concentrationliquid on aco�on ball55Keep in a sealed containerPentobarbitalsodium60-100 mg/kg IV,ICe3,90Can also be administered in lymph sacs in anuransPentobarbitalsodium(P)/sodiumphenytoin (SP)(P) 1,100mg/kg + (SP)141 mg/kgICe80African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis)/complete cardiacarrest within 3 hr80Propofol 60-100 mg/kgICe90 Tricaine meth- ane-sul fonate (MS-222)— MS-222 alone is not a good euthanasia method, usesecondary method; can be administered ICe or inlymph sacs in addition to bath 5 g/L bufferedsolution of MS-222 × 1 hr80African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) 6 g/L bath for 15min31African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) larvae 10 g/L bufferedbath90Most species******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.6Reproductive Hormones Used in Amphibians.15,22,41Select Species ProtocolaAfrican clawedfrog(Xenopuslaevis)85Wild type: prime with 50 U of PMSG or 50 U of hCG between 24 hr to 7 days(although priming is not essential)/induce ovulation with 2 µg/g of oLH or500 U of hCGInbred strains: 30 U of PMSG or 30 U of hCG; boost with 140 µg of oLH or 350U of hCGChinese giantsalamander(Andriasdavidianus)94300-1500 IU/kg hCG and 3-15 µg/kg LHRH-A2 SC; the amount of hormonescan be adjusted based on the gonadal development and maturationPuerto Ricancrested toad(Peltophrynelemur)26Preinjection preparation: cooling period-slowly drop temperature to 18°C(66°F) over several days, maintain for ∼3 wk; then slowly raise temperatureof toads to 28°C (82°F) over 3 days; keep males and females separate undernormal husbandry; soak toads in 0.01% itraconozole for 5 min daily for 5days; “rain” can be simulated throughout the injection process and a fewdays priorDay 1: inject females, 5-6 hr later inject males; LHRH ethylamide 100 µg/ml insaline; females are given 0.1 µg/g SC or ICe and males are given half dose;SC or ICeDay 2: repeat if no eggs; both injections in the morning at the same time; if noeggs, repeat in the pmDay 3: morning; final a�empt; do not repeatWyoming toad(Bufobaxteri)14Day 1: prime with 500 IU hCG and 4 µg LHRHa SCDay 3: 100 IU hCG and 0.8 µg LHRHa SCDay 7: 500 IU hCG and 4 µg LHRHa SCEggs produced during the fertile period (12–18 hr after hormone treatment)were fertilized in a dish with spermic urine.Males, single dose of 300 IU human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) SCproduced spermic urine within 5-7 hr.aPregnant Mare Serum Gonadotropin (PMSG); Ovine Luteinizing Hormone (oLH); HumanChorionic Gonadotropin (hCG); Luteinizing Hormone Releasing Hormone(LHRH); LuteinizingHormone Releasing Hormone Analogue (LHRH-A2 and LHRHa).******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.7Fluids and Supportive Baths Used in Amphibians.91Potential fluid routes: baths, IV, IO, SC, and PO (least common).Basic physiology: The integument actively contributes to osmoregulation, electrolytes and waterare readily absorbed.58,60,91 Ill aquatic amphibians are subject to fluid overload andelectrolyte dilution. Ill terrestrial amphibians are subject to fluid loss and electrolyte increase;however, if skin disease is present, electrolytes may be low.95Clinical care: Rehydration and electrolyte support via baths is appropriate; parenteraladministration is needed with severe skin disease (e.g., chytridiomycosis) or in critical cases.Fluid choice, route, and frequency: depends on natural physiology, disease condition, andclinical goal (e.g., osmolality balance or manipulation versus volume replacement). Animalsmay need to be weaned off fluid support. Target pH to 7.1-7.4. Formulas to create solutionsfrom chemical salts are available, but use of common IV fluids is possible. Avoid using waterwithout electrolytes (e.g., reverse osmosis, distilled) for baths. Dechlorinate if using tap waterto make electrolyte solution for bath treatment.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsGeneral amphibianfluids: mildlyhypotonicEqual parts 5% dextrose (inwater) and saline or a non-lactated electrolyte solution(e.g., Normosol-R,Hospira)91Use intravenous solutionsAmphibian bath:isotonicNormosol-R 900 ml + Dextrose5% 100 ml20Basic fluid and electrolyte bath supportAmphibian Ringer’ssolution (ARS):isotonic6.6 g NaCl, 0.15 g KCl, 0.15 gCaCl2, and 0.2 g NaHCO3in 1 L water90,91For treating hydrocoelom andsubcutaneous edema; up to10 g/L ofglucose may be added; solutionmust be made fresh daily90Dextrose 5% solution:hypertonicBath90,91 For treating hydrocoelom andsubcutaneous edema; 7.5-10%solutions may be more effective forsome cases of hydrocoelomDextrose 50% solution Topically to affected tissues50 Small amount can be applied toedematous/inflamed tissue in casesof cloacal prolapse to aid inprolapse reduction50Hetastarch (6% in0.9% saline):hypertonicBath not to exceed 1 hrwithout reassessment90May help with initial treatment ofhydrocoelomLactated Ringer’ssolution: slightlyhypertonic(Harmann’ssolution, BaxterViaflex)50 ml/kg SC q8h x 3days, thenq12h x 3 days95Australian green tree frogs (Ranoideacaerulea)/terminal chytridiomycosis;used with chloramphenicol andhyperthermia; treatment effective950.9% NaCl: hypertonic Bath91 Use intravenous solution******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.8Miscellaneous Agents Used in Amphibians.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAtropine 0.1 mg SC, IM as needed90 Organophosphate toxicosisBudesonide 0.1 mg/kg PO q24h20 Repeat intestinal prolapsewith inflammation; part ofmulti-modal regime, taperover time20Caffeine Use caffeinated tea bag; steep (soak)until solution is “weak tea”; placeamphibian in shallow bath, replaceq6h90Stimulant; may help reverseivermectin or levamisoletoxicosis, or excessivelydeep anesthesiaCalcium glubionate(Calcionate,1.8 g/5mL, RugbyLaboratories)1 mL/kg PO q24h90 Nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidismCalcium gluconate 100-200 mg/kg SC90 Hypocalcemic tetany 2.3% continuous bath (with 2-3 U/mLvitamin D3)90Nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidismCyanoacrylate surgicaladhesive (Vetbond,3M)Topically on wounds91 Produces a seal for aquaticand semiaquatic speciesDexamethasone 1.5 mg/kg SC, IM, IV90 Vascularizing keratitis; shockDiphenhydramine 51 µg/g SC75 Northern leopard frogs(Lithobatespipiens)/examined foranalgesic effects75Haloperidol lactate 11 µg/g SC75 Northern leopard frogs(Lithobatespipiens)/examined foranalgesic effects75Hyperthermia, elevatedtemperatureTemperature increased to 28°C(82.4°F) × 14 days95Australian green tree frogs(Ranoidea caerulea)/chytridiomycosis;effective in conjunctionwith other treatments95Hypertonic saline, 5%ophthalmic solutionTopically to affected tissues50 Cloacal prolapse; apply toedematous/inflamedtissue to aid in prolapsereduction50Laxative PO (Laxatone, Evsco)90 Laxative; especially forintestinal foreign bodies******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsMethylene blue 2 mg/mL bath to effect91 Nitrite and nitrate toxicosesNutritionalsupplementation90,91Natural diet: whole orpureedGel dietLiquid/soft diets:Carnivore Care(Oxbow AnimalHealth)Emeraid IntensiveCare Carnivore(Lafeber)Feline Clinical CareLiquid (Abbo�)Hill’s A/D (Hill’s)ReptoMin slurry(Tetra)Waltham FelineConcentration(Waltham)1%- ≥3% body weight PO q24-72h,start low and increase over timeHand feed: as long as patientcan swallow food; useheadless insects or gelfood; place food into themouthGavage feed: mix 1:1 withwater if neededPuree: insect abdomens,earthworms, or pinkiemice (omit exoskeletonand skins).Supplement with vitaminsand minerals: may bedifficult to pass throughtube; predigest withpancreatic enzymesOxygen 100% for up to 24 hr91 Adjunct treatment forsepticemia, toxicosesPhysostigmine(ophthalmic drops)1 drop/50 g topically q1-2h to effect90 May ameliorate flaccidparalysis from ivermectinor levamisole toxicosisPrednisolone sodiumsuccinate5-10 mg/kg IM, IV91 ShockSodium thiosulfate 1% solution as continuous bath toeffect91Halogen (e.g., chlorine)toxicosesVitamin A (Aquasol AParenteral, MaynePharma)Dilute 1:9 (parenteral formulation50,000 U/mL) with sterile water;make fresh weekly; apply 1 dropfrom a tuberculin syringe with 27gneedle to amphibians under 5 g; 1drop from tuberculin syringewithout needle is about 200 U anduseful for 15-30 g BW; >30 g, 1 dropper 10 g BW; topically q24h × 14days, then q4-7d90Hypovitaminosis A (shorttongue syndrome),swollen eyelids, evidenceof infectious dermatitis,hydrocoelom, or simply“failing to thrive”******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments Dilute 1:10 in sterile water; applied as1 drop from 18g needle; estimatedas 50 U/frog q48h or q7d70Grey foam-nest tree frog(Chiromantisxerampelina)/weight range,2-7 g; dosing q48h andonce weekly significantlyincreased whole bodyvitamin A levels overcontrol group and grouptreated with vitamin Afortified supplementdusted on crickets70Vitamin A ß-carotene ormixed carotenoidsPO in crickets13 False tomato frog (Dyscophusguineti)/improve skincolor and increase plasmaretinol concentrations13Vitamin B1 25-100 mg/kg PO, IM, ICe90,91 Deficiency resulting fromthiaminase-containing fishVitamin D3 2-3 U/mL continuous bath (with 2.3%calcium gluconate)91Nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidism 100-400 U/kg PO q24h91 Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol)1 mg/kg PO, IM q7d91 200 U/kg feed90 Steatitis******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.9******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.10Blood Collection Sites in Amphibians.Blood volume varies by species or genus. In general, it is safe to collect 10% of the blood volumefrom healthy animals (1% of body weight). Clinical judgment should be used in collectingblood from sick or debilitated animals.30Collection Site Species NotesVentralabdominalveinAnurans Midline, ventral coelom, between sternum and pelvis; risk ofhi�ing coelomic organs; visualization may be confirmedvia transilluminationLingual plexus Anurans Depress tongue to expose buccal surface of the oral cavity; theplexus can be visualized; sedation may be neededFemoral vein Anurans Superficial vessel present along the medial aspect of thefemur; runs parallel with femoral nerve; sedation may beneededCardiac Multiple,includingcaeciliansSedation recommended; aim needle at pectoral girdle,targeting ventricle;allow passive fill of syringe to avoidcollapsing ventricle; ultrasound will helpVentral tail vein Urodelans Similar to reptiles; caudal vein runs along the ventral caudalvertebrate and can be accessed via ventral or lateralapproach; tail autotomy possible in some speciesFacialvein/musculo-cutaneousveinAnurans(Ranidae)Collect blood just rostral or just caudal to the tympanum;insert needle in rostrocaudal direction at 30° angle to theskin; collect from hubLymphaticcollectionAnurans Use for bacterial culture/possible biochemical analysis; collectfrom dorsal or hind limb lymph sacs; easily collected ifexcessive lymph; hold animal with hindlimbs dependentor cerclage at pelvis if needed64******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.11General Differential Diagnoses by Predominant Signs in Pet Amphibians.91,92In all cases, evaluate natural history/biology and environment/husbandry. A partial list:Housing, including substrate, enclosure furnishings/complexity for natural behavior,appropriate hiding spots, social mix (e.g., too many animals, too few, aggression), generalactivity around enclosure, land to water ratio, egress/ingress to water features.Temperature and humidity throughout the enclosure.Lighting, including photoperiod, intensity, light spectrum/type, UV exposure (e.g., present,distance to patient, quality/age of bulb).Water quality, including source, pH, alkalinity/hardness, oxygen levels, nitrogen levels(ammonia, nitrite, and nitrates), chlorine, chloramine, salt, or nicotine in water,supersaturation.Soil/substrate moisture (e.g., too high, too low) and pH, and how often changed.Evaluate feeding, including food type, method of delivery, size of item, presentation, timing offeeding, supplements (type, quality, age, application); if live prey, review how it is fed andhoused.Social issues such as cage mate aggression, display of escape behaviors, breeding behavior,addition of new animals (including quarantine procedures).Additional conditions to consider in almost all presentations include: Infectious causes include awide range of bacteria, viruses (e.g., ranavirus), parasites (e.g., nematodes), fungal disease(e.g., chytrid).Reproductive disease in females.General diagnostics: Impression smears or aspirates (lesions, prolapsed tissues, masses,effusions), and cytology (direct/wet mount and stains: Diff-Quik (or similar), Gram, acid fastof lesions); cultures where indicated.Fecal parasite exam: direct/wet mount, cytology.Water quality, soil or substrate assessment.Imaging: radiographs, ultrasound, and computed tomography.Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing: ranavirus and chytridiomycosis.Blood sampling and analysis; especially calcium (ionized calcium), phosphorus, cholesterol, andtriglycerides; blood/lymphatic cultures.Necropsy: consider culling if there is a group problem.Sign Specific Etiologic Agents to ConsiderAnorexia, inappetence Mycobacteria, chytridiomycosis, chromoblastomycosis, husbandryconcerns, nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism, hypocalcemia,ocular disease with vision impairment, geriatric/senescence, normal(i.e., estivation or hibernation cues), hypovitaminosis A (“shorttongue syndrome”)Bloat Distinguish intestinal filling with solid material or gas versuspneumocoelom; mycobacteria, fungal infection, gastrointestinalnematodes, hypocalcemia (especially in hylid frogs), toxicosis,hypothermia, decomposition of ingesta (e.g., gastric overload,inappropriate temperatures), ruptured lung or trachea, gassupersaturationChanges in skin color(general or focal)Mycobacterium spp., chytridiomycosis, chromomycosis, Capillaroidesxenopi; trauma, burn, or frostbite; excessive UV exposure; chemicalirritation or drug reaction; dehydration or desiccation; nutritionalsecondary hyperparathyroidism, xanthomatosis, or hyperlipidosis******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Changes in skintexture (general orfocal)As above, but also consider normal anatomy (e.g., dorsal crests inEuropean newts, egg brood patch of Surinam toad, nuptial pads inmale anurans)Cloacal prolapse Parasites, colitis/cloacitis, mechanical ileus, dehydration, gastricoverload, intussusception, hypocalcemia, nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidism, constipation, physiologic behavior, iatrogenic(handling, sedation), straining (e.g., bladder stone, oviposition)Excess mucusproduction(typically fullyaquatic animals)Protozoal overload (consider also this as a secondary to skin damage);water qualityFluctuant mass Abscess, helminths (e.g., immature trematodes and cestodes),subcutaneous leeches; lymphatic blockage, xanthomatosis, fluidoverload, thermal injury, hypocalcemia, renal dysfunction; normalanatomy (e.g., active marsupium of Gastrotheca spp. females,distended lymphatic sacs of Ceratophrys spp.), females at certainpoints in the breeding cycleHydrocoelom orexcessive fluid inlymphatic systemMycobacteria, verminous granulomata (filarids, other helminths),hepatic failure, renal failure, hypocalcemia, toxicosis (e.g., heavy metal,poor water quality, insecticide, distilled or reverse osmosis water),xanthomatosis, neoplasia (especially ovarian, hepatic, or renal),failure to oviposit, normal (e.g., ovulation)Lameness/mobilityissuesMycobacterial granulomas in joints, nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidism, trauma, arthritis, malnutrition (e.g.,hypovitaminosis B), hypervitaminosis D, gout (rare), toxicosis(especially insecticides)Ocular opacity Scars, lenticular sclerosis or cataracts, corneal lipidosis/xanthomatosis,trauma, excess UV lightSudden death(individual orgroups)Iridovirus/ranavirus, chlamydiosis, chytridiomycosis; toxicosis (waterammonia, household pesticides, chlorine, other water quality issues);electrocution, hypothermia, hyperthermia, trauma, gastricoverload/impaction, stress, drowningWeight loss Mycobacteria, chytridiomycosis, gastrointestinal nematodes (see Table 3-13), stress/husbandry concerns, vision impairment, hypovitaminosisA (“short tongue syndrome”)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.12Select Disinfectants for Equipment and Cage Furniture.60In order to increase the efficacy of disinfectants, rinse all organic material and debris from thesurface before applying disinfectants.Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis• Sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) 1% for 1 min contact time• Ethanol 70% for 1 min exposure time• Benzalkonium chloride 1 mg/mL for 1 min contact time• Desiccation and exposure to 50-60°C (122-140°F) heat for 30 min• Exposure to 1:1000 quaternary ammonium compound for 30 secRanavirus• Nolvasan (chlorhexidine) 0.75% for 1 min contact time• Sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) 3% for 1 min contact time• Virkon S 1% for 1 min contact time• Desiccation and exposure to 60°C (140°F) heat for 15-30 min******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 3.13Guidelines for Treatment of Pet Amphibians with Nematode Parasites.90,91Overview:Many amphibians have nematode parasites and can remain healthy with low levels of parasites;it is not always necessary or feasible to eliminate parasites from individuals or collectionsCommon amphibian nematodes have a direct life cycle; gastrointestinal and pulmonarynematodes are possible, both pass ova in the fecesHigh parasite burdens or concurrent disease can cause health concernsMaintaining an appropriate environment, including routine cleaning and removal of feces, is animportant component to preventing and treating parasite-related health issues; antiparasiticsalone may not be sufficientStage and characterize fecal examinations to help determine if treatment is necessary:Routine, randomly collected feces should be assessed:Direct wet mounts and cytologyEvaluate a shift in cytology and fluctuations in nematode ova and larvaeThere is often no correlation between reduction in nematode ova or larvae in feces and actualreduction in nematodenumbersImprovements in body condition score (BCS) and weight often happen when the ova orlarvae counts go down and the feces has ≤5 RBC/HPF and <1 WBC/HPFIf the stool appears grossly normal:and there are ≤5 RBC/HPF or <1 WBC/HPF, parasites may not be clinically significantand there are >5-10 RBC/HPF or >1-5 WBC/HPF, parasites are likely clinically significant,treatment may be indicatedor there are >5 strongyle larvae/HPF on direct or float, treatIf there is diarrhea, blood, mucus, and visible nematodes present, treatVisible nematodes alone may be environmentalEvaluate the amphibian patient; treatment should be considered if:Animals appear unthrifty, there are mortalities with nematodes implicated, or there areotherwise unexplained mortalitiesAssess current health and BCSif unthrifty, consider any nematode ova, larvae, or adults clinically significant; treat fornematodes appropriately in light of other clinical findingsif well fleshed, stage the fecal parasite exam; if there are low levels, treatment may not beneededEvaluate success through return to normal weight, BCS, feces, and/or behavior and not onlyfecal parasite levels******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******References1. Adami C, d’Ovidio D, Casoni D. Alfaxalone-butorphanol verses alfaxalone-morphine combinationfor immersion anaesthesia in oriental fire-bellied toads(Bombina orientalis). Lab Anim. 2016;50:204–211.2. Adami C, Spadavecchia C, Angeli G, et al. Alfaxaloneanesthesia by immersion in oriental fire-bellied toads(Bombina orientalis). Vet Anaesth Analg. 2015;42:547–551.3. American Veterinary Medical Association. AVMAGuidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals: 2020Edition. Available at:h�ps://www.avma.org/sites/default/files/2020-01/2020-Euthanasia-Final-1-17-20.pdf. AccessedNovember 20, 2020.4. Baitchman EJ, Pessier AP. Pathogenesis, diagnosis,and treatment of amphibian chytridiomycosis. Vet ClinNorth Am Exot Anim Pract. 2013;16(3):669–685.5. Balko JA, Watson MK, Papich MG, et al. Plasmaconcentrations of ketoprofen and meloxicam aftersubcutaneous and topical administration in the smokyjungle frog (Leptodactylus pentadactylus). J Herpetol MedSurg. 2018;28(3-4):89–92.6. Barbon AR, Routh A, Lopez J. Inhalatory isofluraneanesthesia in mountain chicken frogs (Leptodactylusfallax). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2019;50(2):453–456.7. Bianchi CM, Johnson CB, Howard LL, et al. Efficacy offenbendazole and levamisole treatments in captiveHouston toads (Bufo [Anaxyrus] houstonensis). J ZooWildl Med. 2014;45:564–568.8. Blooi M, Pasmans F, Rouffaer L, et al. Successfultreatment of Batrachochytrium salamandrivoranshttps://www.avma.org/sites/default/files/2020-01/2020-Euthanasia-Final-1-17-20.pdf******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******infections in salamanders requires synergy betweenvoriconazole, polymyxin E and temperature. Sci Rep.2015;5:11788.9. Bodri MS. Selamectin lacks efficacy against lungworm(Rhabdias sp.) in the lemur leaf frog (Hylomantis lemur).J Herpetol Med Surg. 2016;26(3-4):104–107.10. Bowerman J, Rombough C, Weinstock SR, et al.Terbinafine hydrochloride in ethanol effectively clearsBatrachochytrium dendrobatidis in amphibians. JHerpetol Med Surg. 2010;20:24–28.11. 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Cermakova E, Oliveri M, Ceplecha V, et al.Anesthesia with intramuscular administration ofhttp://doi.org/10.3791/58675******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******alfaxalone in Spanish ribbed newt (Pleurodeles waltl). JExot Pet Med. 2020;33:23–26.17. Chai N. Surgery in amphibians. Vet Clin North AmExot Anim Pract. 2016;19(1):77–95.18. Chai N, Whitaker BR. Amphibian chytridiomycosis.In: Divers SJ, Stahl SJ, eds. Mader’s Reptile andAmphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd ed., Elsevier,St. Louis, MO; 2019:1292–1293.19. Chatfield MW.H, Richards-Zawacki CL. Elevatedtemperature as a treatment for Batrachochytriumdendrobatidis infection in captive frogs. Dis Aquat Org.2011;94:235–238.20. Clayton LA. Personal observation; 2020.21. Clayton LA, Nelson J, Payton ME, et al. Clinicalsigns, management, and outcome of presumptiveivermectin overdose in a group of dendrobatid frogs. JHerpetol Med Surg. 2013;22(1):5–11.22. Clulow J, Upton R, Trudeau VL, et al. Amphibianassisted reproductive technologies: moving fromtechnology to application. In: Comizzoli P, Brown JL,Holt WV, eds. Reproductive Sciences in AnimalConservation, 2nd ed., Springer, Cham; 2019:413–463.23. Coble DJ, Taylor DK, Mook DM. Analgesic effects ofmeloxicam, morphine sulfate, flunixin meglumine,and xylazine hydrochloride in African-clawed frogs(Xenopus laevis). J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2011;50:355–360.24. D’Agostino JJ, West G, Boothe DM, et al. Plasmapharmacokinetics of selamectin after a single topicaladministration in the American bullfrog (Ranacatesbeiana). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2007;38:51–54.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******25. Del Valle JM, Eisthen HL. Treatment ofchytridiomycosis in laboratory axolotls (Ambystomamexicanum) and rough-skinned newts (Tarichagranulosa). Comp Med. 2019;69(3):204–211.26. DeVoe RS. Personal communication; 2020.27. Doss GA, Nevarez JG, Fowlkes N, et al. Evaluation ofmetomidate hydrochloride as an anesthetic in leopardfrogs (Rana pipiens). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2014;45:53–59.28. El-Mofty MM, Abdelmeguid NE, Sadek IA, et al.Induction of leukaemia in chloramphenicol-treatedtoads. E Mediter Health J. 2000;6:1026–1034.29. Felt S, Papich MG, Howard A, et al. Tissuedistribution of enrofloxacin in African clawed frogs(Xenopus laevis) after intramuscular and subcutaneousadministration. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2013;52:186–188.30. Forzán MJ, Horney BS. Amphibians. In: Heatley JJ,Russell KE, eds. Exotic Animal Laboratory Diagnosis;Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ; 2020:347–368.31. Galex IA, Gallant CM, D’Avignon N, et al. Evaluationof effective and practical euthanasia methods forlarval African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). J Am AssocLab Anim Sci. 2020;59(3):269–274.32. Garner TW.J, Garcia G, Carroll B, et al. Usingitraconazole to clear Batrachochytrium dendrobatidisinfection, and subsequent depigmentation of Alytesmuletensis tadpoles. Dis Aquat Org. 2009;83:257–260.33. Georoff TA, Moore RP, Rodriguez C, et al. Efficacy oftreatment and long-term follow-up ofBatrachochytrium dendrobatidis PCR-positive anuransfollowing itraconazole bath treatment. J Zoo Wildl Med.2013;44:395–403.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******34. Goulet F, Hélie P, Vachon P. Eugenol anesthesia inAfrican clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis) of different bodyweights. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2010;49:460–463.35. Guéne�e SA, Beaudry F, Vachon P. Anestheticproperties of propofol in African clawed frogs(Xenopus laevis). J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2008;47:35–38.36. Hadzima E, Mitchell MA, Knotek Z, et al. Alfaxaloneuse in Xenopus laevis: comparison of IV, IM, IP, andwater immersion of alfaxalone with doses of 18 mg/kgand 18 mg/L. Proc Annu Conf Assoc Rept Amph Vet;2013:60–64.37. Howard AM, Papich MG, Felt SA, et al. Thepharmacokinetics ofenrofloxacin in adult Africanclawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci.2010;49:800–804.38. Iglauer F, Willmann F, Hilken G, et al. Anthelmintictreatment to eradicate cutaneous capillariasis in acolony of South African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis).Lab Anim Sci. 1997;47:477–482.39. Jones ME.B, Paddock D, Bender L, et al. Treatment ofchytridiomycosis with reduced-dose itraconazole. DisAquat Org. 2012;99:243–249.40. Koeller CA. Comparison of buprenorphine andbutorphanol analgesia in the eastern red spo�ed newt(Notophthalmus viridescens). J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci.2009;48:171–175.41. Kouba A, Vance C, Calatayud N, et al. Assistedreproductive technologies (ART) for amphibians. In:Poole VA, Grow S, eds. Amphibian HusbandryResource Guide, 2nd ed., Association of Zoos andAquariums, Silver Spring, MD; 2012:60–118.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******42. Krisp AR, Hausmann JC, Sladky KK, et al. Anestheticefficacy of MS-222 in White’s tree frogs (Litoriacaerulea). J Herpetol Med Surg. 2020;30(1):38–41.43. Lalonde-Robert V, Beaudry F, Vachon P.Pharmacologic parameters of MS222 and physiologicchanges in frogs (Xenopus laevis) after immersion atanesthetic doses. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2012;51:464–468.44. Letcher J. Evaluation of use of tiletamine/zolazepamfor anesthesia of bullfrogs and leopard frogs. J Am VetMed Assoc. 1995;207:80–82.45. Letcher J, Glade M. Efficacy of ivermectin as ananthelmintic in leopard frogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc.1992;200:537–538.46. Llaniguez JT, Szczepaniak MA, Rickman BH, et al.Quantitative and qualitative behavioral measurementsto assess pain in axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum). J AmAssoc Lab Anim Sci. 2020;59(2):186–196.47. Machin KL. Amphibian pain and analgesia. J ZooWildl Med. 1999;30:2–10.48. Marcec R, Mitchell MA, Kirshenbaum J, et al. Clinicaland physiologic effects of sodium chloride baths inaxolotls, Ambystoma mexicanum. Proc Annu Conf AssocRept Amph Vet. 2011;1.49. Martel A, Van Rooij P, Vercauteren G, et al.Developing a safe antifungal treatment protocol toeliminate Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis fromamphibians. Med Mycol. 2011;49:143–149.50. McDermo� C, Hadfield K, Clayton L, et al. Cloacalprolapses in anurans: a ten-year retrospective review.Proc Annu Conf Assoc Rept Amph Vet; 2015:477.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******51. McMillan MW, Leece EA. Immersion andbranchial/transcutaneous irrigation anaesthesia withalfaxalone in a Mexican axolotl. Vet Anaesth Analg.2011;38:619–623.52. Minter LJ, Clarke EO, Gjeltema JL, et al. Effects ofintramuscular meloxicam administration onprostaglandin E2 synthesis in the North Americanbullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). J Zoo Wildl Med.2011;42:680–685.53. Mitchell MA, Riggs SM, Singleton CB, et al.Evaluating the clinical and cardiopulmonary effects ofclove oil and propofol in tiger salamanders(Ambystoma tigrinum). J Exot Pet Med. 2009;18:50–56.54. Musgrave KE, Hanley CS, Papich MG. Populationpharmacokinetics of ceftazidime after a singlesubcutaneous injection and normal oral and cloacalbacterial flora survey in eastern hellbenders(Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis). Proc AnnuConf Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 2020;118.55. Mylniczenko N. Personal observation; 2020.56. Nevarez JG. Euthanasia. In: Divers SJ, Stahl SJ, eds.Mader’s Reptile and Amphibian Medicine andSurgery, 3rd ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2019:437–440.57. Novarro AJ, Blackman A, Bailey SD. Tricainemethanesulfonate (MS-222) as a short-term anestheticfor the eastern red-backed salamander, Plethodoncinereus. Herpetol Rev. 2017;48(2):320–322.58. Pessier AP. Edematous frogs, urinary tract disease,and disorders of fluid balance. J Exot Pet Med.2009;18(1):4–13.59. Pessier AP. Personal communication; 2014.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******60. A Manual for Control of Infectious Diseases inAmphibian Survival Assurance Colonies andReintroduction Programs. Version 2.0. In: Pessier AP,Mendelson JR, eds. Apple Valley: IUCN/SSCConservation Breeding Specialist Group. Available at:.h�ps://www.amphibianark.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Disease-Manual-2017.pdf.Accessed October 10; 2017:2020.61. Pfeiffer CJ, Pyle H, Asashima M. Blood cellmorphology and counts in the Japanese newt (Cynopspyrrhogaster). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1990;21(1):56–64.62. Posner LP, Bailey KM, Richardson EY, et al.Alfaxalone anesthesia in bullfrogs (Lithobatescatesbeiana) by injection or immersion. J Zoo Wildl Med.2013;44:965–971.63. Rendle M, Tapley B, Perkins M, et al. Itraconazoletreatment of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd)infection in captive caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona)and the first case of Bd in a wild neotropical caecilian.J Zoo Aquar Res. 2015;3(4):137–140.64. Reynolds SJ, Christian KA, Tracy CR. Application ofa method for obtaining lymph from anuranamphibians. J Herpetol. 2009;43(1):148–153.65. Ri�in A, Visser M, Barre� K, et al. Thepharmacokinetics of topical itraconazole inPanamanian golden frogs (Atelopus zeteki). J Zoo WildlMed. 2017;48(2):344–351.66. Roberts AA, Berger L, Robertson SG, et al. Theefficacy and pharmacokinetics of terbinafine againstthe frog-killing fungus (Batrachochytriumdendrobatidis). Med Mycol. 2019;57(2):204–214.https://www.amphibianark.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Disease-Manual-2017.pdf******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******67. Sco� G, Louis MM, Balko JA, et al. Pharmacokineticsof transdermal flunixin meglumine following a singledose in marine toads (Rhinella marina). Vet Med Int.2020;8863537.68. Shaw S, Speare R, Lynn DH, et al. Nematode andciliate nasal infection in captive Archey’s frogs(Leiopelma archeyi). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2011;42:473–479.69. Shilton CM, Smith DA, Crawshaw GJ, et al. Corneallipid deposition in Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilusseptentrionalis) and its relationship to serum lipids: anexperimental study. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2001;32:305–319.70. Sim RR, Sullivan KE, Valdes EV, et al. A comparisonof oral and topical vitamin A supplementation inAfrican foam-nesting frogs (Chiromantis xerampelina). JZoo Wildl Med. 2010;41:456–460.71. Sirimanapong W, Saetang S, Namwongprom K, et al.A comparison of 3 anesthetic agents (MS-222,benzocaine, and clove oil) in East Asian bullfrog(Hoplobatrachus rugulosus). J Mahanakorn Vet Med.2020;15(1):43–55.72. Sladakovic I, Johnson RS, Vogelnest L. Evaluation ofintramuscular alfaxalone in three Australian frogspecies (Litoria caerulea, Litoria aurea, Litoreabooroolongensis). J Herpetol Med Surg. 2014;24:36–42.73. Smith BD, Vail KJ, Carroll GL, et al. Comparison ofetomidate, benzocaine, and MS222 anesthesia withand without subsequent flunixin meglumine analgesiain African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis). J Am AssocLab An Sci. 2018;57(2):202–209.74. Speare R, Speare B, Muller R, et al. Anesthesia oftadpoles of the southern brown tree frog (Litoria******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******ewingii) with isoeugenol (Aqui-S). J Zoo Wildl Med.2014;45:492–496.75. Stevens CW. Analgesia in amphibians: preclinicalstudies and clinical applications. Vet Clin North AmExot Anim Pract. 2011;14(1):33–44.76. Stone SM, Clarke-Price SC, Boesch JM, et al.Evaluation of righting reflex in cane toads (Bufomarinus) after topical application of sevoflurane jelly.Am J Vet Res. 2013;74:823–827.77. Stoskopf MK, Arnold J, Mason M. Aminoglycosideantibiotic levels in the aquatic salamander (Necturusnecturus). J Zoo Anim Med. 1987;18:81–85.78. Strobel S, Hagedorn A, O� S, et al. A comparison ofthe analgesic effects of fentanyl and butorphanol inAfrican clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis) under tricainemethanesulfonate (MS222) anaesthesia. SOJAnesthesiol Pain Manag. 2018;5(2):1–10.79. Terril-Robb L, Suckow M, Grigdesby C. Evaluation ofthe analgesic effects of butorphanol tartrate, xylazinehydrochloride, and flunixin meglumine in leopardfrogs (Rana pipiens). Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci.1996;35:54–56.80. Torreilles SL, McClure DE,Green SL. Evaluation andrefinement of euthanasia methods for Xenopus laevis. JAm Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2009;48:512–516.81. Valitu�o MT, Raphael BL, Calle PP, et al. Tissueconcentrations of enrofloxacin and its metaboliteciprofloxacin after a single topical dose in the coquifrog (Eleutherodactylus coqui). J Herpetol Med Surg.2013;23:69–73.82. Wiley M, Wu J, Dawson B. A comparison of twotreatments for nematode infections in the Túngara******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******frog, Engystomops pustulosus. J Herpetol Med Surg.2009;19(1):21–22.83. Williams CJ, Alstrup AK, Bertelsen MF, et al. Whenlocal anesthesia becomes universal: pronouncedsystemic effects of subcutaneous lidocaine in bullfrogs(Lithobates catesbeianus). Comp Biochem Physiol A: MolIntegrative Physiol. 2017;209:41–46.84. Wilson S, Felt S, Torreilles S, et al. Serum clinicalbiochemical and hematological reference ranges oflaboratory-reared and wild-caught Xenopus laevis. JAm Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2011;50:635–640.85. Wlizla M, McNamara S, Horb ME. Generation andcare of Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis embryos.In: Vleminckx K, eds. Xenopus Methods and Protocols.Methods in Molecular Biology. 2018;1865, HumanaPress, New York, NY, 19–32.86. Woodhams DC, Alford RA, Marantelli G. Emergingdisease of amphibians cured by elevated bodytemperature. Dis Aquat Org. 2003;55:65–67.87. Wojick KB, Langan JN, Mitchell MA. Evaluation ofMS-222 (tricaine methanesulfonate) and propofol asanesthetic agents in Sonoran desert toads (Bufoalvarius). J Herpetol Med Surg. 2010;20:79–83.88. Wright K. Amputation of the tail of a two-toedamphiuma, Amphiuma means. Bull Assoc Rept AmphibVet. 1994;4(1):5.89. Wright KM, Carpenter JW, DeVoe RS. 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Improved method inbreeding and artificial propagation for Chinese giantsalamanders (Andrias davidianus). J Marine BiolAquacult. 2017;3(2):1–5.95. Young S, Speare R, Berger L, et al. Chloramphenicolwith fluid and electrolyte therapy cures terminally illgreen tree frogs (Litoria caerulea) withchytridiomycosis. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2012;43:330–337.96. Young S, Warner J, Speare R, et al. Hematologic andplasma biochemical reference intervals for healthmonitoring of wild Australian tree frogs. Vet ClinPathol. 2012;41:478–492.97. Zec S, Clark-Price S, Coleman DA, et al. Loss andreturn of righting reflex in American green tree frogs(Hyla cinerea) after topical application of compoundedsevoflurane or isoflurane jelly: a pilot study. J HerpetolMed Surg. 2014;24:72–76.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******98. Zullian C, Dodelet-Devillers A, Roy S, et al.Evaluation of the anesthetic effects of MS222 in theadult Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). VetMed (Auckland, NZ). 2016;7:1.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******C H A P T E R 4******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******ReptilesKurt K. Sladky | Eric Klaphake | Nicola Di Girolamo | James W. Carpenter******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******For ease of use for the Reptiles chapter, drug dosages are firstlisted by “most species” followed by dosages in snakes,lizards, chelonians, and crocodilians; feed and water dosagesare generally listed last.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.1Antimicrobial Agents Used in Reptiles.a,bAgent Dosage Species/CommentsAmikacin — Potentially nephrotoxic; maintain hydration;frequently used with a penicillin orcephalosporin26 µg/kg/hr viaosmotic infusionpump implant77,458Snakes/PD; consider loading dose at time of implant3.48 mg/kg IM once225 Pythons (ball pythons)/PK5 mg/kg IM, then2.5 mg/kg q72h286Gopher snakes/PD; house at high end of optimumtemperature range during treatment5 mg/kg IM then2.5 mg/kg IMq72h444Lizards5 mg/kg IM q48h58 Gopher tortoises/PK; 30°C (86°F)2.25 mg/kg IM q72h218 Alligators/PD50 mg/10 mL saline x30 minnebulizationq12h243Most species/pneumonia; aminophylline at 25 mg/9mL of sterile saline in nebulizer before antibioticsfor bronchodilation382Amoxicillin 5-10 mg/kg PO, IMq12-24h184Most species/may be combined with clavulanate;may be used with an aminoglycoside (monitorhydration)22 mg/kg PO q12-24h107Most species/use with an aminoglycoside5 mg/kg IM q4d374 Freshwater crocodiles/PKAmpicillin — May use with an aminoglycoside10-20 mg/kg SC, IMq12h184,243Most species50 mg/kg IM q12h438 Tortoise/PDAzithromycin 10 mg/kg PO q2-7d81,207Ball pythons/PK; 30°C (86°F); single-dose study; 2wk after IV administration, one snake died fromapparent nonregenerative anemia; Mycoplasma,Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and other susceptibleorganisms; location dictates dosage frequency:skin, q3d; respiratory tract, q5d; liver/kidneys,q7d; metabolites were retrieved in bile, liver,lung, kidney, and skin samplesCefazolin 22 mg/kg IM q24h243 Chelonians******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsCefotaxime 20-40 mg/kg IMq24h243Most species/may use with an aminoglycoside100 mg/10 mL saline x30 minnebulizationq24h243Most species/pneumoniaCefovecin — Short dosing interval is likely for most reptilespecies341,46610 mg/kg SC q12h466 Green iguanas/PD; 25°C (77°F)8 mg/kg SC341 Hermann’s tortoises/PK; highly variable results, t1/2from 12-124 hr, mean 21 hr; 22°C (72°F) + baskingspot at 35°C (95°F)Cefquinome 2 mg/kg IM, IV473 Chelonians (red-eared sliders)/PK; half-life 27 hr(IM) and 22 hr (IV)Ceftazidime — Storage: 90% strength of the ceftazidime solution ismaintained for 120 hr when ceftazidime is storedin the refrigerator (4°C) and for at least 25 dayswhen stored in the freezer (−18°C) in individualplastic tuberculin syringes of 0.2 mL;69 in aretrospective study on susceptibility pa�erns ofaerobic bacteria isolated from reptiles, all 11gram-positive isolates were resistant toceftazidime46120 mg/kg IM q48-72h485Most species/retrospective study; administered to 10lizards, 8 snakes, and 4 chelonians; unknownoutcomes20-40 mg/kg SC, IMq48-72h142,444,485Most species/chameleons use q24h20 mg/kg SC, IM, IVq72h265Snakes/PD; 30°C (86°F); often effective against gram-negative aerobes (i.e., Pseudomonas)20 mg/kg IM, IVq60h447Sea turtles/PK; 24°C (75°F); plasma concentrationswere above the MIC for Pseudomonas aeruginosa(8 µg/mL) for at least 60 hr after IM and IV dose;22 mg/kg may be preferred20 mg/kg IM q5d69 Turtles (box turtles, sliders, cooters)/PK; 23-24°C (73-75°F); concentrations were above 8 µg/mL for5 days22 mg/kg IM q72h211 Sea turtles/PK; administered when turtles reached atemperature of 21-24°C (70-75°F); considering atarget MIC value of 4 µg/mL, time above MICwas 100% of the dosing interval for 72 hr******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsCeftiofur sodium 5 mg/kg SC, IM q24h35 Lizards (green iguanas)/PK; 30°C (86°F); peakplasma concentration IM significantly greaterthan SC; likely effective against pathogens withMIC ≤2 µg/mL5 mg/kg IM q24h x18days188Lizards/treatment of Devriesea agamarum (causesdermatitis and septisemia);188 in beardeddragons experimentally infected with D.agamarum, this dose resulted in elimination of thepathogen; in spiny-tailed lizards (Uromastyx)lizards with natural occurring infection, this doseresulted in clearance of the infection in 12 daysCeftiofurcrystalline-free acid(CCFA)(Excede,Pfizer)15 mg/kg IM q24-120h5Snakes (ball pythons)/PK; 26°C (79°F); dosinginterval based on MIC5 mg/kg IM q24h407 Lizards (green iguanas)/PK; green iguanas; 30°C(86°F) ± 2°C; exceeded 1 µg/mL for ≈48 hr and 2µg/mL for 24 hr30 mg/kg IM, SC76 Lizards (bearded dragons)/PK; 30°C (86°F); intervalmay be q10-12dCeftriaxone 12.5-25 mg/kg IMq48h371Freshwater crocodiles/PK; AUC values increases in adose-dependent fashion; half-life values aresimilar at the two dosages and around 20 hrChloramphenicol — Most species/public health concern; reserve formeningitis or encephalitis caused by susceptibleorganisms40 mg/kg PO, SC, IMq24h, or 20 mg/kgPO, SC, IM q12h142Most species/20 mg/kg may be given q24h in largercrocodilians40 mg/kg SC q24h243 Snakes (gopher snakes)/PD; 29°C (84°F)50 mg/kg SC q12-72h78 Snakes/PK; q12h in indigo, rat, king snakes; q24h inboids, moccasin snakes; q48h in ra�lesnakes;q72h in red-bellied water snakesClarithromycin — Six months of treatment with clarithromycinresulted in complete remission of clinical signs indesert tortoises with upper respiratory tractdisease (mycoplasmosis);491 however, whenclarithromycin was given orally to 10 Mycoplasmaspp. positive tortoises without clinical signs at20 mg/kg q48-72h for 90 days, it failed tosuppress Mycoplasma spp. shedding in all butone of them;391 15 mg/kg per rectumadministration did not reach 2 µg/mL492******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments15 mg/kg PO q84h492 Tortoises(desert tortoises)/PD; 30-33°C (86-92°F);2x/wk dosing maintained target levelspreviously recommended for the treatment ofmycoplasmosis15 mg/kg PO q24-72h491Tortoises(desert tortoises)/PK; 30-33°C (86-92°F);accumulation proven if given q24hChlorhexidine(Nolvasan 2%,Fort Dodge)Topical 0.05% aqueoussolution q24h243All species/topical disinfection; dermatitis; infectiousstomatitis; periodontal disease in lizards q24hTopical 0.07% (1:30[solution:water])243Most species/topical disinfection; infectiousstomatitis; abscess lavage; middle ear infectionflush in box turtlesCiprofloxacin 10 mg/kg PO q48h107 Most species11 mg/kg PO q48-72h243Pythons (reticulated pythons)/PDCiprofloxacinophthalmicointment ordrops(Ciloxan,Alcon)Topical243 All species/infectious stomatitis; gingivitisClarithromycin 15 mg/kg PO q84h492 Tortoises (desert tortoises)/PD; upper respiratorytract disease (mycoplasmosis)Clindamycin 10 mg/kg PO, IM, IVq12h176Loggerhead sea turtles/PK; 29-30°C (84-87°F);insufficient to be effectiveDanofloxacin 6 mg/kg SC, IM302 Loggerhead sea turtles/PK; levels of danofloxacin>0.05 µg/mL were maintained for 48 hr afteradministrationEnrofloxacin — IM administration is believed to be painful and mayresult in tissue necrosis and sterile abscesses; incertain species may cause skin discoloration ortissue necrosis if given SC; suggest diluting withsterile NaCl before SC administration; several studies show that a lessfrequent administration of the drug may besufficient;168,219,372 hyperexcitation,incoordination, diarrhea have been reported in aGalapagos tortoise655-13 mg/kg PO, IMq24-48h485Various species/retrospective study; administered to25 lizards, 10 snakes and 2 chelonians; unknownoutcomes10 mg/kg IMq48h482,483,500Snakes (Burmese pythons, ra�lesnakes, pitvipers)/PK******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments10 mg/kg IM followedby 5 mg/kg IMq48h500Snakes (Burmese pythons)/PK; for treatment ofmore enrofloxacin-sensitive gram-negativebacteria5 mg/kg PO, IMq24h312Lizards (green iguanas)/PK; markedpharmacokinetic variability with POadministration may make parenteraladministration more suitable in critically illanimals; plasma concentrations >0.2 µg/mL wereobtained for variable amount of time; at the dosegiven, ciprofloxacin levels were below the levelof quantitation of the assay5 mg/kg IM q24h ×27days188Bearded dragons/ineffective in treating Devrieseaagamarum in experimentally infected animals10 mg/kg PO q24h ×14days52Green iguanas/effective in preventing Salmonellashedding in eight out of nine iguanas sensitive at5 µg/mL10 mg/kg IM409 Lizards (bearded dragons)/PK; 24-26°C (75-79°F)and basking spot; drug diluted to 10 mg/mL andadministered in the hindlimb muscle; no adverseeffects noted; dose might be effective againstbacteria with MIC values of 0.8–0.9 µg/mL butnot sufficient for treating infections of bacteriawith MIC over 0.9 µg/mL; half-life 20 hr; noeffect noted on cloacal bacteria10 mg/kg PO7 Lizards (Asian house geckos)/PK; beta half-life 24hr; result in plasma concentrations effectiveagainst susceptible bacterial species inhibited byan enrofloxacin MIC ≤0.5 µg/mL10 mg/kg IM q24h206 Monitors/PK (savannah monitor); preliminary data5 mg/kg IM q24-48h376 Chelonians (gopher tortoises)/PD5 mg/kg IM q12-24h386 Chelonians (Indian star tortoises)/PK; q12h forPseudomonas and Citrobacter; q24h for otherbacteria5 mg/kg IM, IVq48h258Sea turtles (loggerhead sea turtles)/PK10 mg/kg ICeq48h158,408Chelonians (Hermann’s tortoises, yellow-belliedsliders)/PD; dilute with saline to 10 mg/mL10 mg/kg SC168 Chelonians (Eastern box turtles, yellow-belliedsliders, river cooters)/PK; a single SC injectionresulted in plasma drug concentrations above aMIC value of 0.5 µg/mL for over 200 hr in allthree species******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments10-20 mg/kg POq7d219Sea turtles (loggerhead sea turtles)/PK; 25-29°C (77-84°F);tablets administered in squid; single 20 mg/kgadministration calculated to be effective forbacteria with MIC =1 µg/mL for 1 wk 5 mg/kg IM, IV q36-72h191,306Crocodilians (American alligators, estuarinecrocodiles)/PK; prolonged oral absorption witheffective plasma drug level only on day 3; POpharmacokinetics not fully determined 5 mg/kg IM, IV372 Crocodilians (freshwater crocodiles)/PK; singleadministration study; long half-life (43-44 hr)similar after IM and IV administrationsGentamicin — Nephrotoxicity has been reported,333 especially insnakes; maintain hydration; use with a penicillinor cephalosporin; injection site had no effect onpharmacokinetic parameters in red-earedsliders2042.5 mg/kg IM q72h56 Snakes (gopher snakes)/PD2.5-3 mg/kg IM, then1.5 mg/kg q96h200Snakes (blood pythons)/PK3 mg/kg IM q>96h28 Turtles (Eastern box turtles)/PK; 29°C (84°F); lowerdose may be more appropriate6 mg/kg IM q72-96h385 Turtles (red-eared sliders)/PK; 24°C (75°F)1.75-2.25 mg/kg IMq72-96h218Crocodilians (alligators)/PK; respiratory infectionGentamicinophthalmicointment ordropsTopical243 Most species/superficial ocular infection; lesions inoral cavityAgent Dosage Species/CommentsMarbofloxacin — In a study on yellow-bellied sliders, 2 out of 8 turtlesdied after one injection of marbofloxacin at10 mg/kg ICe;475 in Chinese soft-shelled turtles,administration of 10 mg/kg IM and PO resulted inunspecified adverse effects;423 administration of asingle dose of marbofloxacin in yellow-belliedsliders resulted in cloacal shedding of resistantSalmonella and E. coli from 48 hr from theadministration, especially at lower doses(0.4 mg/kg)47510 mg/kg POq48h82Snakes (ball pythons)/PK; 30°C (86°F)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments2 mg/kg IM,IV259Chelonians (red-eared sliders)/PK; room 24°C (75°F),water 28°C (82°F), basking spot 30°C (86°F);maximum plasma concentration was higher afterforelimb administration; half-life afterforelimbconcentration was 4.6 hr2 mg/kg ICe475 Chelonians (yellow-bellied sliders)/PK; room 24°-26°C(75-79°F), water 25°C (77°F), basking spot 30°C(86°F); long half-life (25 hr)2 mg/kg PO303 Sea turtles/PK (loggerhead sea turtles); half-life 13 hr2 mg/kg IM, IVq24h258Sea turtles (loggerhead sea turtles)/PK; water 26-28°C(79-82°F); half-life 19 hr (IM) and 15 hr (IV); IM q24hdosing likely not effective for bacteria with MIC>0.5 µg/mL2 mg/kg IM,IV373Crocodilians (freshwater crocodiles)/PK; long half-life(2.5 days)Metronidazole 20 mg/kg POq48h x≥7days143Most species/anaerobes20 mg/kg POq48h254Yellow rat snakes/PK; 27-29°C (81-84°F); whentreatment was repeated for 6 administrations, meanmetronidazole plasma concentration was alwayshigher than 4 µg/mL; should be adequate for thetreatment of most anaerobic infections50 mg/kg POq48h43aRed rat snakes/PK; 28°C (82°F); mean metronidazoleplasma concentration was higher than 6 µg/ml for48 hr20 mg/kg POq24-48h255Iguanas/PK; use q24h for more resistant anaerobesOxytetracycline 6-10 mg/kg PO,IM, IVq24h107,243Most species/may produce local inflammation atinjection site42 mg/kg SCq6d213Sea turtles (multiple species)/PK; drug was dilutedprior to administration (5-20 mL/kg); plasmaoxytetracycline concentrations were maintainedabove a MIC value of ≈4 µg/mL for ≈6 days21310 mg/kg IM, IVq5d190Crocodilians (alligators)/PK; 27°C (81°F);mycoplasmosisPiperacillin 50-100 mg/kgIMq24h107,243Most species/broad-spectrum bactericidal agent;maintain hydration; may use with anaminoglycoside; is only available in combinationwith tazobactam100 mg/kg IMq48h201Snakes (blood pythons)/PK******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsPolymyxin B sulfate,neomycin sulfate,bacitracin zincointmentTopical243 All species/rostral abrasions, dermal woundsPovidone-iodinesolution (0.05%)or ointmentTopical/lavage63 All species/fungal dermatitis; dermatophilosis;contaminated wound; can soak in 0.005% aqueoussolution ≤1 hr q12-24h63Silver sulfadiazinecream (Silvadene,Marion)Topical q24-72h285All species/broad-spectrum antibacterial for skin (i.e.,wounds, burns) or oral cavity; dressing is generallynot necessaryTicarcillin (Ticar,SmithKline-Beecham)50-100 mg/kgIM, IV q24-48h291Loggerhead sea turtles/PKTobramycin — Potentially nephrotoxic; maintain hydration;potentiated by ß-lactamsTrimethoprim — When administered orally to red-eared sliders at 168mg/animal, the drug was excreted unaltered within1 hr476Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole30 mg/kg IMq24h264Reticulated python/administered in a case of maxillaryosteomyelitis together with surgical debridement;no PK studies availableTrimethoprim-sulphonamide(compounded)30 mg/kg POq12h ×14days426Bearded dragon/administered in a case of enterococcalcholecystitis after cholecystectomy based onsensitivity testingaBecause reptiles are ectothermic, pharmacokinetics of drugs are influenced by ambienttemperature. Antimicrobial therapy should be conducted at the upper end of the patient’spreferred (selected) optimum temperature zone.bSee Table 15.4 for antimicrobial combination therapies, some of which are commonly used inreptiles.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.2Antiviral Agents Used in Reptiles.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAcyclovir 40-80 mg/kg PO10 Box turtles/PK; low maximum plasmaconcentrations; uncertain efficacy 80 mg/kg PO q8h or240 mg/kg POq24h315Tortoises/herpesvirus; uncertain efficacy; unlikely toeliminate infection; combine with supportivecare 80 mg/kg PO q24h360 Mediterranean tortoises/decreased mortality inthose infected with TeHV-3 80 mg/kg PO q24h86 Australian Krefft’s river turtles/herpesvirus;uncertain efficacy ≥80 mg/kg PO q24h144 Marginated tortoises/PK; herpesvirus; poor oralabsorption Topical (5% ointment)q12h63All species/antiviral (i.e., herpesvirus-associateddermatitis)Chlorhexidinesolution0.5% dilution, topicalon oral lesionsq24h238Tortoises/herpesvirusFamcyclovir 10-30 mg/kg PO q24husing allometricscaling428Eastern box turtles/treated during outbreak ofconcurrent terHV-1 and ranavirus (FV-3);uncertain efficacyValacyclovir 40 mg/kg PO q24h10 Box turtles/PK; effective plasma concentrationscompared to humans; uncertain efficacy ortoxicity******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.3Antifungal Agents Used in Reptiles.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAmphotericin B 0.5 mg/kg IV q48-72h63 Most species/nephrotoxic; can use incombination with ketoconazole;administer slowly 0.5-1 mg/kg IV, ICeq24-72h × 14-28days107Most species/aspergillosis 1 mg/kg IT q24h × 14-28days63Most species/respiratory infection; dilutewith water or saline 0.1 mg/kgintrapulmonaryq24h × 28 days192Greek tortoises/pneumonia 1 mg/kg q24h ICe × 2-4wk272Crocodilians 5 mg/150 mL saline × 1hr nebulizationq12h × 7 days63Most species/pneumoniaChlorhexidine(Nolvasan 2%, FortDodge)20 mL/g water bath63 Lizards/dermatophytosisClotrimazole (Veltrim,Haver-Lockhart;Otomax, withgentamicin andbetamethasone,Schering-Plough)Topical402 Most species/dermatitis; may bathe q12h withdilute organic iodine prior to useF10 super concentratedisinfectant (Healthand Hygiene,Roodeport, S Africa)1:250 nasal flush, 0.1mL each nareq24h74Terrestrial chelonians/benzalkoniumchloride/polyhexamethylene biguanideHClFluconazole 5 mg/kg PO q24h63 Lizards/dermatophytosis 21 mg/kg SC once,then 10 mg/kg SC 5days later176,177,289Loggerhead sea turtles/PKGriseofulvin 15 mg/kg POq72h221,222,243Most species 20-40 mg/kg PO q72h x5 treatments402Most species/dermatitis; limited success******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsItraconazole 5 mg/kg PO q24h305 Most species/some hepatotoxicity notedwhen used for Chrysosporium anamorph ofNannizziopsis vriesii; can cause anorexia inbearded dragons without evidence ofhepatotoxicity152 10 mg/kg PO q24h330 Snakes/10 mg/kg per cloacal did not lead totherapeutic plasma or tissueconcentrations in co�onmouths271 5 mg/kg PO q24h185 Panther chameleons 10 mg/kg PO q48h × 60days38Chameleons (Parson’s)/osteomyelitis 23.5 mg/kg PO q24h147 Lizards/PK (spiny lizards); following a 3-daytreatment, a therapeutic plasmaconcentration persists for 6 days beyondpeak concentration; treatment intervalwas not determined 5 mg/kg PO q24h, or15 mg/kg POq72h292Kemp’s ridley sea turtlesKetoconazole — May use antibiotics concomitantly to preventbacterial overgrowth; may useconcurrently with thiabendazole15 mg/kg q72hPO221,222,243Most species25 mg/kg PO q24h × 21days217Snakes, turtles15-30 mg/kg POq24h × 14-28 days363Gopher tortoises/PK; systemic infection50 mg/kg PO q24h × 14-28 days63CrocodiliansMalachite green 0.15 mg/L water × 1 hrbath × 14 days107DermatitisMiconazole (Monistat-Derm, Ortho)Topical402 Most species/dermatitis; may bathe q12h withdilute organic iodine before useNystatin 100,000 U/kg POq24h ×10 days63Most species/enteric yeast infections; limitedsuccessTerbinafine Topical233 Use in conjunction with oral azoles forChrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsisvriesii; expect long treatment calendar******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments2 mg/mL solutionnebulized for 30min/day x 30days181Lake Erie watersnakes (Nerodiasp.)/ophidiomycosis; terbinafinenebulization is a promosing treatment butmay require multiple nebulizationcourses; disease may not resolve1812 mg/mL nebulizationx 30 min228Co�onmouths/quickly reached in vitrosusceptibility concentration andmaintained for at least 12 hr24.5 mg (75–190 mg/kg) SCimplant (MelatekImplants,MELATEK L.L.C.,Middleton, WI) x 7wk228Co�onmouths/quickly reached in vitrosusceptibility concentration andmaintained for at least 7 wk20 mg/kg PO319 Beardeddragons/PK; Nannizziopsis quarroi(cause cutaneous lesions, etc.); this dosewould exceed the MIC concentration forN. quarroi for at least 24hr3193.4 mg/kg PO q24h × 15mo453Aldabra tortoises/severe phaeohyphomycosisof carapace; non-responsive toitraconazole15 mg/kg PO gavagedonce119Red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta)/PK; pilotstudy; q12h may be needed to meet manyfungal MIC levelsTolnaftate 1% cream(Tinactin, Schering-Plough)Topical q12h prn9 Most species/dermatitis; may bathe q12h withdilute organic iodine before useVoriconazole — High rate of mortality in 1-2 hr forco�onmouths at 5 mg/kg SC27110 mg/kg per cloacal3 ×/wk× 4 wk318Ra�lesnakes/Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola;crushed in suspension (Ora-Plus, PaddockLaboratories)10 mg/kg PO × 47days427,474Bearded dragons for Chrysosporiumanamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii; possiblehepatocellular injury 10 mg/kg PO q24h x 10wk187Cured Chrysosporium anamorph ofNannizziopsis vriesii infection in giantgirdled lizard; exceeded MIC tenfold 10 mg/kg SC q12h x 7days215Red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta)/PK;resulted in trough concentrationsconsidered subtherapeutic in humans butmay reach MIC for some reptile fungalisolates; possible side effects seen******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 10 mg/kg PO q48h x 7doses498Western pond turtles (Actinemysmarmorata)/PK; no adverse effects seen;observed trough plasma concentrationsconsistently higher than reportedEmydomyces testavorans MICconcentrationsVoriconazole (V)/F10super concentratedisinfectant (F10)(Health andHygiene, Roodeport,S. Africa)(V) 10 mg/kg POq24h ×60days + (F10) 1:250dilution for 20 minbath q24h × 60days412Luthega skinks/systemic Lecanicillium sp.infection; nonresponsive to oralvoriconazole and terbinafine ointment******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.4Antiparasitic Agents Used in Reptiles.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsCarbaryl powder(5%)— If used as antiparasitical, use cautiously because it canhave harmful effects, including death, on reptiles;carbaryl administered at 25 and 250 µg/g to snake-eyed lizard caused disruption in villi andprominent hemorrhage of the small intestine;57 hasbeen banned in some statesChloroquine — Chloroquine administered at 10 mg/kg PO for 7 dayswas ineffective in treating blood parasites of thefamily Haemogregarinidae (Apicomplexa) inGallotia sp. lizards136Emodepside(1.98%) +praziquantel(7.94%)(Profender,Bayer)1.12 mL/kg323,415 Many species/PD; nematodes; cestodes; aquatic turtlesmust be kept dry for 48 hr after application; appearsto be safe, but needs more safety and efficacy data1 mL/kg once462 Chelonians/PD; nematodes; oxyurid eggs at day 33after administration decreased but they were stillpresentFenbendazole — Drug of choice for nematodes; least toxic of thebenzimidazoles; may have an antiprotozoan effect;overdose may cause leukopenia; avoid in septicemicpatients34525 mg/kg POq14d309Snakes (corn snakes)/hookworm; of three symptomaticsnakes treated, one died, one was euthanized due torecurring prolapse, and one survived25-100 mg/kg POq14d for up to4treatments244Snakes (ball pythons)/nematodes40 mg/kg POonce136Lizards (Gallotia sp.)/PD; oxyurids; no eggs weredetected in nine lizards treated up to 75 days posttreatment100 mg/kgonce151Tortoises/nematodes; shedding of ova continues for 30daysFipronil (0.29%;Frontline Spray,Merial)Apply to a co�onball and wipeon the skin,120then wash offin 5 min;q7-10d prnMost species/mites, ticks; beware of reactions to alcoholcarrier; needs safety evaluation; multiple anecdotalreports of toxicity in reptiles******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments4 g/animaltopically120Lizards (green iguana)/PD; fipronil was applied to aco�on ball and wiped on the skin, resulting in anaverage of 4 g fipronil/iguana; a singleadministration was effective in 9 out of 11animals120Halofuginone — Hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effects seen in all snakesadministered halofuginone in one study165110 mg/kg q7d ×5treatments145Green iguanas/PD; administered to four iguanas withcryptosporidiosis together with hyperimmunebovine colostrum and subcutaneous fluids resultedin eradication of Cryptosporidium after 40 days andfor at least 18 months in the three iguanas thatsurvivedImidacloprid andmoxidectin(Advantagemulti/Advocate,Bayer)32-160 mg/kg(imidacloprid)and 8-40 mg/kg(moxidectin)topical onceor q24h ×3days322Reptiles/nematodes and mites; in animals with a thickepidermis, higher dosage was needed; fornematodes, a single treatment was sufficient; formites, treatment had to be repeated on 3consecutive days; one Asian grass lizard out of fourdied after treatment; treatment should be started atlow dosages to avoid side effects0.2 mL/kgtopically q14dx 3treatments170Lizards/eliminated hookworms and pinworms;treatment did not eliminate coccidia; needs safetyand pharmacokinetic evaluationIvermectin — Do not use in chelonians,465 crocodilians, indigosnakes, or skinks;243,246 there are multiple anecdotaland published reports of lethal ivermectin toxicityat 0.2 mg/kg SC in squamates;46,459 ivermectintoxicity may also occur in snakes eating treatedrodents;173 ivermectin has been proven to causeflaccid paresis and death in various species ofchelonians at dosages between 0.025 and0.3 mg/kg;465 may be safer to avoid using parenteralivermectin in a specific species until safety study isperformed******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments0.2 mg/kg PO,SC, IM, repeatin 14days127,243Snakes (except indigo snakes), lizards, exceptskinks243/nematodes (including lungworms),278mites; can dilute with propylene glycol for oral use;colored animals may have skin discoloration atinjection site; rare adverse effects reported inchameleons, possibly associated with breakdown ofparasites;25 do not use within 10 days of diazepamor tiletamine/zolazepam; rare death and occasionalnervous system signs, lethargy, or inape�ence havebeen reported;246 used for pentastomids in oneBose’s monitor lizard (repeated after 10 days)127and in four boa constrictors (repeated after 14days)278 without evidence of side effectsIvermectin(sustainedrelease)Topicalapplication onareas at risk ofmyasis20Crocodilians/myasis; a single application of a1-10 mmlayer of the product on a wound in one Nilecrocodile resolved myasisLevamisole(Levasole13.65%,Mallinckrodt)— Most species/lungworms; very narrow range of safety;main advantage is that it can be administeredparenterally; avoid use in debilitated animals10 mg/kg SCrepeated in 14days278Snakes (boa constrictor)/PD; administered to four boaconstrictors positive for lungworms (Rhabdias); onlyone was negative both at 28 days and 12 mo aftertreatment10 mg/kg SC,IM63Chelonians (red-eared sliders)/PK; no local or systemicadverse effect was observed followingadministration in nine turtles; entirely absorbedfollowing SC and IM administration; uncleareffectivenessMebendazole 20-25 mg/kg PO,repeat in 14days prn243Most species/stronglyes, ascarids; unsure of efficacy atthose dosages400 mg/kg PO256 Lizards (garden lizard Calotes)/PD;256 single PO dose100% effective against nematodes at 400 mg/kg and1200 mg/kg; at 400 mg/kg, 84% effective againstgallbladder trematodes and 58% effective againstcestodes; less effective at lower dosages; unclear ifsafe at these doses in other species******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsMetronidazole — Protozoan (i.e., flagellates, amoebae) overgrowth; maystimulate appetite; mat cause severe neurologicsigns at doses >200 mg/kg;331 death occurred inindigo and mountain king snakes at 100 mg/kg;243injectable form can be administered PO; oralsuspension is not available in the United States, butcanbe compounded; efficacy studies are lacking;dose of 100 mg/kg PO q24h for 5 days in a ballpython with amebiasis was ineffective25320 mg/kg POq48h254Yellow rat snakes/PK; 27-29°C (81-84°F); whentreatment was repeated for 6 administrations, meanmetronidazole plasma concentration was alwayshigher than 4 µg/mL50 mg/kg POq48h43aRed rat snakes/PK; 28°C (82°F); mean metronidazoleplasma concentration was higher than 6 µg/mL for48 hr20 mg/kg PO q24-48h25540-60 mg/kg POq7d x2-3doses44540-200 mg/kgPO, repeat in14 days326Iguanas/PK; unclear effectiveness against protozoaChameleons/flagellates; amoebaeGeckos/ocular lesions (40 mg/kg) and subcutaneouslesions (200 mg/kg) caused by Trichomonas20 mg/kg ICeq48h21025 mg/kg POq24h x5days243Red-eared sliders/PK; ICe administration notrecommended; needs further safety evaluationChelonians/amoebiasisMilbemycin 0.25-0.5 mg/kg SCprn43Chelonians (red-eared sliders)/safety study; five red-eared sliders were injected and did not showadverse effects; unclear efficacy; parenteral form isnot commercially available in United States;fenbendazole perferredAgent Dosage Species/CommentsOxfendazole(Benzelmin, FortDodge)25 mg/kg PO once232 Lizards (green iguanas)/oxyurids;effective in a non-controlled study66 mg/kg PO once151 Chelonians (Hermann’stortoise)/oxyurids; may be repeatedafter 28 days prn******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsParomomycin(Humatin, ParkeDavis)— To date, there has not been anytreatments shown to be completelyeffective in treatingcryptosporidiosis; paromomycin, anaminoglycoside, has the mostpromise;44 in reptiles withcryptosporidiosis, dosesapproximately 100 mg/kg q24h arelikely to control clinical signs andshedding but not eradicate theorganisms;169 higher doses likelyneeded for eradication; limited dataavailable on safety100 mg/kg PO q24h x 7 days,then 2x/wk x 3 mo88Snakes/cryptosporidiosis; reducedclinical signs and oocyte shedding;does not eliminate the organism360 mg/kg PO 2x/wk ×6 wk392 Snakes/cryptosporidiosis; snake (kingcobra) was subclinical at time oftreatment; shedding ofCryptosporidium was eliminated360 mg/kg 2x/wk x 6 wk infood44aEastern indigo snakes/dosage wasineffective in eliminatingcryptosporidiosis in naturallyinfected indigo snakes50-800 mg/kg PO q24h44 Leopard geckos/cryptosporidiosis;oocyst shedding subsided butresumed post treatment100 mg/kg PO q24h x 7 days,then q84h x 72 days44Leopard geckos/cryptosporidiosis;improved condition of someanimals300-360 mg/kg PO q48h x 14days364Lizards (gila monsters)/cryptosporidiosis360 mg/kg PO q48h ×10 days169 Bearded dragons/intestinalcryptosporidiosis; initial treatmentat 100 mg/kg q24h stoppedshedding of cryptosporidia in fivebearded dragons, but shedding thenresumed in 3/5 bearded dragonsafter the daily treatment wasreduced to a 2x/wk frequency;detectable excretion stopped in allindividuals treated withparomomycin at 360 mg/kg q48h for10 days; histopathology failed toreveal cryptosporidium in theselizards******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments100 mg/kg PO q24h x7 days,then q84h for90 days44Hermann’s tortoises/cryptosporidiosis;controlled clinical signs andsheddingPermethrin(Provent-a-Mite,Pro Products)Environmental treatment,1 sec ofspray/ft2; wait until drybefore returning animal toenclosure55Lizards, snakes/mites; ticks; FDAapproved; death reported in snakesthat had permethrin applieddirectly on the body;486 washimmediately if accidentally appliedto skinTopical54 Tortoises/ticksPiperazine — Lizards (garden lizard Calotes)/PD;253single PO dose 100% effectiveagainst nematodes at 400 mg/kgand 1200 mg/kg; at 400 mg/kg, 67%effective against gallbladdertrematodes and 77% effectiveagainst cestodes; less effective atlower dosages; unclear if safe atthese doses in other species100-200 mg/kg PO195 CrocodiliansPonazuril — Ponazuril administered at 20 mg/kg POin red-footed tortoises did notachieve concentrations known to beeffective for anticoccidial treatmentin mammals;29 tortoises showedprolonged oral absorption and aterminal elimination rate constantand half-life were not able to bedetermined in a study lasting 7days2915-40 mg/kg PO q24h × 21days477,478Bearded dragons/coccidiosis30 mg/kg PO q48h ×2treatments45Bearded dragons/coccidiosis20 mg/kg PO q48h ×56 days449 Red-footed tortoises/intranuclearcoccidiosis; two tortoises treated atthese dosage became asymptomaticbut did not clear the infection449Praziquantel — See also emodepside; cestodes,trematodes8-10 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, repeat in14 days243,396Most species/cestodes, trematodes;higher dosages have beenadministered******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments25 mg/kg PO q3h ×3treatments219aLoggerhead sea turtles/PK; meanplasma concentration was 90 ng/mL48 hr after the first of 3 doses50 mg/kg PO × 3 times in oneday6Green sea turtles/PD; a 1-day course oftreatment at 50 mg/kg body weightat 0, 7, and 9 hr was effective forspirorchidiasis (cardiovascularflukes); in another case, aloggerhead sea turtle that received50 mg/kg of praziquantel developedskin lesions within 48 hr ofadministration219aPyrantel pamoate 5 mg/kg PO, repeat in14 days246 Most species/nematodes25 mg/kg PO q24h x3 days,repeat in 3 wk142Most species/ascarids, hookworms,pinworms5 mg/kg PO, repeat in14 days424 Indian star tortoises/PD; administeredto 15 tortoises with oxyurids andascarids; complete clearance of theparasites was seen on day 14 afterthe first treatment with no reportedrecurrencePyrethrin spray(0.09%)— Limited published information onsafety and efficacy; mortality inanole lizards reported whenexposed to a solution that contained300 mg/L of pyrethrins;460 in onestudy, pyrethrins were not 100%effective in killing African tortoiseticks54Topical q7d x2-3 treatments123 Most species/use water-based sprayslabeled for ki�ens and puppies;apply with cloth; can also spraycage, wash out after 30 min; usesparingly and with caution;pyrethroids are safer (seepermethrin)Quinine sulfate 75 mg/kg SC q48h ×12treatments468Fence lizards, anole lizards/PD;468effective against some Plasmodiumspp.; toxic at >100 mg/kg q24h;ineffective against exoerythrocyticformsSpiramycin — Drug investigated for the treatment ofcryptosporidiosis in snakes******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments80 mg/kg PO q24h ×3treatments165Snakes (Panterophissp.)/cryptosporidiosis resulted innegative fecal examination in twosnakes, decreased oocyst sheddingin two snakes, and no changes interms of oocyst shedding in theremaining two snakes;Cryptosporidium was presenthistologically in all animals;although higher dosages have beensuggested, there is limitedsupporting evidence foreffectiveness or safety of thosedosagesSpiramycin +metronidazole(Stomorgyl,Merial)200 mg/kg PO q5d × 5 wk(givenin combination withtrimethoprim/sulfadiazine)145Lizards (greeniguanas)/cryptosporidiosis;administered together withtrimethoprim/sulfadiazine(75 mg/kg q5d × 5 wk) to fouriguanas with cryptosporidiosis; oneanimal died and three cleared theinfectionSulfadiazine,sulfamerazine— Most species/coccidia; avoid sulfadrugs in cases of dehydration,urinary calculi, or renaldysfunction33175 mg/kg PO, then45 mg/kgq24h x 5 days243Most species/coccidia25 mg/kg PO q24h x21 days243 Snakes, lizards/coccidiaSulfadimethoxine 50 mg/kg PO q24h x3-5 days,then q48h prn246Most species/coccidia; ensure adequatehydration and renal function90 mg/kg PO, IM, IV, then45 mg/kg q24h x 5-7 days396Most species/coccidia50 mg/kg PO q24h x21 days477,478 Bearded dragons/coccidiaSulfamethazine 25 mg/kg PO, IM, q24h x 21days396Most species/coccidia50 mg/kg PO q24h x 3 days, off 3days, on 3 days243Most species/coccidiaToltrazuril 5%(Baycox, Bayer)5-15 mg/kg PO q24-48h x 3-30days243These dosages have been anecdotallysuggested in other formularies,although there is limitedinformation on safety and efficacyin any reptile species******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsToltrazuril(T) + clindamycin(C)(T) 10 mg/kg PO q24h ×3 daysrepeated in7 days + (C)5 mg/kg PO q24h × 7 days451Lizards (Lawson’s dragons)/coccidiosis from Choleoeimeria spp.;elimination of oocysts was notimpacted in a Lawson’s dragon bytoltrazuril in varying intervals ortrimethoprim and sulfonamide; thistreatment protocol, however,resulted in negative oocystsheddingTrimethoprim-sulfonamides— Most species/coccidia; avoidpotentiated sulfa drugs in cases ofdehydration or renal dysfunction33130 mg/kg PO q24 ×2-14 days87,243 Most species/coccidia; although thisdosage has also been suggested inother formularies, there is limitedinformation on safety and efficacyin any reptile species75 mg/kg PO q5d × 5 wk(given incombination withspiramycin/metronidazole)145Lizards (greeniguanas)/cryptosporidiosis;administered together withspiramycin/metronidazole(200 mg/kg q5d × 5 wk) to fouriguanas with cryptosporidiosis: oneanimal died and three cleared theinfection******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.5Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Reptiles.aAgent Dosage Species/CommentsAcepromazine 0.05-0.25 mg/kg IM243 Most species/can be used as apreanesthetic with ketamine 0.1-0.5 mg/kg IM328,362 Most species/preanesthetic; reduceby 50% if used with barbituratesAcepromazine (A)/propofol(P)(A) 0.5 mg/kg IM + (P)5 mg/kg IV; (A)0.5 mg/kg IM + (P)10 mg/kg IV11Giant Amazon river turtles/sedationwith both protocols, longerduration with higher propofoldosageAlfaxalone (Alfaxan, Jurox) 6-9 mg/kg IV, or 9-15 mg/kg IM268Most species/good musclerelaxation; variable results; drugrequires more evaluation; mayhave violent recovery;30 don’tuse within 10 days of DMSOtreatment6-15 mg/kg IM, IV420 Most species9 mg/kg IV413 Snakes, lizards/induction; noteffective for blotched blue-tongued skinks15 mg/kg IM328 Lizards, chelonians/induction, 35-40min; duration, 15-35 min; goodmuscle relaxation; variableresults5 mg/kg SC499 Ball pythons/deeper and longersedation when admininstered inthe cranial half versus caudalhalf of the body 10-30 mg/kg IM220 Ball pythons/increased sedationwith cranial administration andincreasing dose 15 mg/kg SC397 Corn snakes/moderate sedationregardless of whetheradministered cranial or caudalhalf of snake 30 mg/kg ICe452 Garter snakes/sedation 5 mg/kg IV (jugularvein)336Leopard geckos/sedation fortracheal intubation; causeddecreased heart rate andrespiratory rate******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 12 mg/kg IV366 Bearded dragons/rapid inductionfor intubation; decreasedrespiratory rate 3-10 mg/kg IV369 Loggerhead sea turtleyearlings/rapid sedation;hypoxemia at higher doses andanimals required assistedventilation at 10 mg/kg 5 mg/kg IV248 Turtles, tortoises/induction 5 mg/kg IV338 Yellow-bellied sliders/increasedsedation, decreased heart andrespiratory rates whenadmininstered in the dorsalcervical sinus compared tococcydial vein 5 mg/kg IN66 Red-eared sliders turtles/minimalsedation 10-20 mg/kg IM174,240,425 Horsfield’s tortoises (males only)/light-to-moderate sedation withno-to-minimal analgesia; red-eared slider turtles/light sedationof short duration; PD-turtlesadministered 10 mg/kg at lowtemperature more relaxed thanwhen warm and turtlesadministered 20 mg/kg at warmtemperature were most relaxed 20 mg/kg IM212 Red-eared sliders, Eastern paintedturtles, yellow-spo�ed Amazonriver turtles, otherundocumented turtlespecies/anesthetic induction 24 mg/kg ICe171 Red-eared sliders/surgicalanesthesia with good relaxation 3 mg/kg IV357 Crocodilians/induction;unpredictable resultsAlfaxalone (Al)/dexmedetomidine (De)(Al) 30 mg/kg + (De)0.1 mg/kg SC388Brown anole lizards/surgical planeof anesthesia for approximately30 minAlfaxalone (Al)/lidocaine (L) (Al) 15 mg/kg SC + (L)4 mg/kg IM125Bearded dragons/lidocaine did notpotentiate alfaxalone sedation,but did transiently increase heartrate******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAlfaxalone(Al)/medetomidine (Me)(Al) 10 mg/kg + (Me)0.10 mg/kg IM; (Al)20 mg/kg + (Me)0.05 mg/kg IM174Horsfield’s tortoises (males only)/deeper sedation than alfaxalonealone with analgesiaAtipamezole (Antisedan,Zoetis)Give same volume SC, IV,IP as medetomidine ordexmedetomidine (5xmedetomidine or 10xdexmedetomidine dosein mg)a,129,436Most species/medetomidine anddexmedetomidine reversal;causes severe hypotension ingopher tortoises when given IV94 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM128 Chelonians/shell repair 5-10 minbefore finished 0.5-0.75 mg/kg IM,3860.75 mg/kg SC298Chelonians 1-3 mg/kg IM334 Nile crocodilesAtropine 0.01-0.04 mg/kg SC, IM,IV, ICe63Most species/preanesthetic;bradycardia; rarely indicated;generally use only in profoundor prolonged bradycardia; mayhelp prevent intracardiacshunting; ineffective at this dosein green iguanas 0.5 mg/kg IM, IV, IT, IO331 Most species/bradycardia, decreasesecretions, CPR 1 mg/kg IV167 Red-footed tortoises (females)/decreased MAC of isoflurane byeliminating R-L shunting ofblood and facilitating isofluranedistributionBupivicaine (0.5%) 1 mg/kg intrathecal294 Turtles, tortoises/spinal anesthesia1 mg/kg neuraxial(intrathecal)124Bearded dragons/motor and sensoryblock in caudal part of body0.1 mL/10 cm carapace27 Green sea turtles/spinal anesthesiaButorphanol — Butorphanol combinations follow;see ketamine for combinations;inadequate for analgesia 0.4-1 mg/kg SC, IM63 Most species/sedation; preanesthetic 0.5-2 mg/kg IM or 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IV, IO33Most species/preanesthetic 1-1.5 mg/kg SC, IM63 Lizards/administer 30 min prior toisoflurane for smooth, shorterinduction 0.2 mg/kg IM182,386 Chelonians/minimal sedation******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsButorphanol(B)/medetomidine (Me)b(B) 0.4 mg/kg + (Me)0.08 mg/kg IM150Green tree monitors/sedationButorphanol (B)/ midazolam(Mi)(B) 0.4 mg/kg + (Mi)2 mg/kg IM63Most species/preanesthetic;administer 20 min beforeinductionDexmedetomidineb(Dexdomitor; Zoetis)— Dexmedetomidine combinationsfollow; α2 agonist that hasreplaced medetomidine;b reversewith atipamezole 0.2 mg/kg IM41 Black and white tegus/no sedation 0.05-0.15 mg/kg IN114 Indian star tortoises, red-footedtortoises/no significant sedationDexmedetomidine(De)/ketamine(K)/hydromorphone (H)(De) 0.075-0.2 mg/kg + (K)5.0-7.5 mg/kg + (H)0.5 mg/kg IM139Bearded dragons/surgical anesthesiafor celioscopy; some beardeddragons required supplementalisofluraneDexmedetomidine(De)/ketamine(K)/morphine (Mo)(De) 0.075 mg/kg + (K)8 mg/kg + (Mo)1 mg/kg IM321Gopher tortoises/anesthesia;reversed with atipamezoleDexmedetomidine(De)/midazolam (Mi)(De) 0.2 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg IM41Black and white tegus/moderatesedation with antinociception toa thermal noxious stimulusDexmedetomidine(De)/midazolam(Mi)/alfaxalone (Al)(De) 0.05 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg + (A) 5 mg/kgIV21American alligators/significantsedation; compared sedation to(De) + (Mi) + (K); increasedsedation compared to (De) + (Mi)+ (K) with more apneaDexmedetomidine(De)/midazolam(Mi)/ketamine (K)(De) 0.05 mg/kg + (Mi)0.5 mg/kg + (K)5 mg/kgIM406Bullsnakes/satisfactory sedation forminor surgical procedures(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg + (K) 2-4 mg/kg SC115,299Red-eared sliders, black and whitetegus/deep sedation(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg + (K)10 mg/kg400Ornate box turtles/light anesthesialasting ∼40 min; rapid onset;smooth recovery; no adverseeffects noted******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments(De) 0.05 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg + (K) 5 mg/kgIV21American alligators/administereddrugs in the lateral occipitalvenous sinus; adequate fororotracheal intubation; 5/6 (83%)alligators maintainedspontaneous ventilation; slightlyless sedation and less apneacompared to (De) + (Mi) +alfaxaloneDexmedetomidine(De)/midazolam(Mi)/ketamine(K)/alfaxalone (Al)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (Mi)0.5 mg/kg + (K)3 mg/kg + (Al)8.5 mg/kg IM25Slider turtles/induction prior toundergoing endoscopicovariectomyDexmedetomidine (De)/tribromoethanol (Tr)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (Tr)400 mg/kg SC388Brown anole lizards/surgical planeof anesthesia for approximately80 minDextroketamine (DK) 10 mg/kg IV, ICe202 Spectacled caiman/PK; mildsedation ICeDextroketamine(DK)/midazolam (Mi)(Mi) 0.5 mg/kg + (DK)10 mg/kg IV, ICe202Spectacled caiman/PK; deepsedation IV; no analgesiaDiazepamc — Diazepam has been replaced by theuse of midazolam in manycases;c see ketamine forcombinations; muscle relaxation;give 20 min prior to anesthesia;potentially reversible withflumazenil; drug interaction withivermectin0.5 mg/kg IM, IV331 All species/seizures2.5 mg/kg IM, IV403 Most species/seizures0.2-0.8 mg/kg IM63 Snakes/use in conjunction withketamine for anesthesia withmuscle relaxation0.2-2 mg/kg IM, IV420 Snakes, lizards2.5 mg/kg PO63 Iguanas/reduce anxiety which oftenleads to aggression0.2-1 mg/kg IM 63,420 Chelonians/use in conjunction withketamine for anesthesia withmuscle relaxationDisoprofol 5-15 mg/kg IV to effect63 All species/anesthesia; similarcharacteristics to propofol; notavailable in United StatesDoxapram 4-12 mg/kg IM, IV63 Most species/respiratory stimulant******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments5 mg/kg IM, IV q10minprn63Most species/respiratory stimulant;reduces recovery time; reportedto partially “reverse” effects ofdissociatives26920 mg/kg IM, IV, IO331 Most species/respiratory stimulant10 mg/kg230 Ball pythons/preventsdexmedetomidine-inducedreduction of breathing frequency 5-10 mg/kg IV429 American alligators/immediatedose-dependent increase inbreathing frequencyEpinephrine (1:1000) 0.5-1 mg/kg IV, IO, IT331 Most species/CPR, cardiac arrest0.1 mg/kg IM162 Snapping turtles/reduction in timeto spontaneous respiration afterisoflurane anesthesia0.1 mg/kg IM23 Loggerhead sea turtles/more rapidrecovery from isofluraneanesthesia compared to saline0.1 mg/kg IM148 American alligators/more rapidrecovery from isofluraneanesthesia compared to salineEtorphine (M-99, WildlifePharmaceuticals)0.3-0.5 mg/kg IM3280.3-2.75 mg/kg IM268Crocodilians, chelonians/very potentnarcotic; crocodilians: induction,5-30 min; duration, 30-180 min;chelonians: induction, 10-20 min;duration, 40-120 min; not veryeffective in reptiles other thanalligators; poor relaxation;adequate for immobilization andminor procedures; requires anantagonist; limited use becauseof expense and legal restrictionsFlumazenil (Romazicon,Hoffman-LaRoche)— All species/reversal ofbenzodiazepines, includingdiazepam and midazolam0.05 mg/kg SC, IM, IV295 All species/reversal of midazolam;extrapolated from mammals andbirds1 mg/20 mg ofzolazepam274 IM, IV386Chelonians, crocodilians/reversal ofzolazepam******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsFospropofol 25-50 mg/kg ICe418 Red-eared sliders/muscle relaxationand immobility especially athigher dosage, but prolongedrecovery, and profoundrespiratory depression withresuscitation in 2/8 subjects; usewith cautionGallamine (Flaxedil,American Cyanamid)0.4-1.25 mg/kg IM630.6-4 mg/kg IM2750.7 mg/kg IM3351.2-2 mg/kg IM1290.5-2 mg/kg IM260Crocodiles/results in flaccidparalysis, but no analgesia;larger animals require lowerdosage; reverse withneostigmine;275 use in alligatorsquestionable; unsafe in alligatorsat ≥1 mg/kg;362 deaths reportedin American alligators and falsegharials272CrocodiliansGlycopyrrolate 0.01 mg/kg SC, IM, IV63 Most species/preanesthetic; forexcess oral or respiratory mucus;rarely indicated; generally useonly in profound or prolongedbradycardia; may be preferableto atropine;243 does not work atthis dose in green iguanas243Haloperidol 0.5-10 mg/kg IM q7-14d448 Boids/aggression managementHyaluronidase (Wydase,Wyeth)25 U/dose SC273 Crocodilians/combine withpremedication, anesthetic, orreversal drugs to accelerate SCabsorptionIsoflurane 3-5% induction, 1-3%maintenance63Most species/inhalation anesthetic ofchoice in reptiles; induction, 6-20min; recovery, 30-60 min; not assmooth in reptiles compared toother animals; intubation andintermi�ent positive pressureventilation advisable; maypreanesthetize with low dosepropofol, ketamine, etc.3% in 100% O2 and 21%O2351Bearded dragons/trend towardshorter induction and recoverywith 21% O2 group compared touse of 100% O25% via chamber in5 LO2/min199Green iguanas/15-35 min loss ofrighting reflex; mean MAC,1.62%; pH 7.49******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsKetamine — Ketamine combinations follow;muscle relaxation and analgesiamay be marginal; prolongedrecovery with higher doses;larger reptiles require lowerdose; painful at injection site;safety is questionable indebilitated patients; avoid use incases with renal dysfunction;snakes may be permanentlyaggressive after ketamineanesthesia; generally recommenduse only as a preanesthetic priorto isoflurane for surgicalanesthesia10 mg/kg SC, IM q30min63 Most species/maintenance ofanesthesia; recovery, 3-4 hr20-60 mg/kg IM, or 5-15 mg/kg IV63Most species/muscle relaxationimproved with midazolam ordiazepamc22-44 mg/kg SC, IM63 Most species/sedation55-88 mg/kg SC, IM63 Most species/surgical anesthesia;induction, 10-30 min; recovery,24-96 hr5-10 mg/kg IM63 Snakes/decreases the incidence ofbreath-holding during chamberinduction10-20 mg/kg IM330,331 Snakes/sedation20-60 mg/kg SC, IM63 Snakes/sedation; induction, 30 min;recovery, 2-48 hr40 mg/kg IV1 Hissing sand snakes/surgical planeof anesthesia for 24 min; higherdoses may be fatal 50 mg/kg IM383 King cobra/surgical plane ofanesthesia; single case report 60-80 mg/kg IM63 Snakes/light anesthesia; intermi�entpositive pressure ventilation maybe needed at higher doses 5-10 mg/kg IM63 Lizards/decreases the incidence ofbreath-holding during chamberinduction 20-30 mg/kg IM63 Iguanas/sedation (i.e., facilitatesendotracheal intubation);preanesthetic; requires lowerdose than other reptiles******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 30-50 mg/kg SC, IM63 Lizards/sedation; variable results 40 mg/kg IV1 Iguanas/sedation (i.e., facilitatesendotracheal intubation);preanesthetic; requires lowerdose than other reptiles 10-20 mg/kg IM330,331 Chelonians/sedation 20-60 mg/kg IM63,203 Chelonians/sedation; induction, 30min; recovery, ≥24 hr; potentiallydangerous in dehydrated anddebilitated tortoises 25 mg/kg IM, IV63 Sea turtles/sedation; used at higherdoses (50-70 mg/kg); recoverytimes may be excessively longand unpredictable; combinationof ketamine and acepromazinegives a more rapid induction andrecovery 38-71 mg/kg ICe494 Green sea turtles/anesthesia;induction, 2-10 min; duration, 2-10 min; recovery, <30 min 60-90 mg/kg IM63,328 Chelonians/light anesthesia;induction, <30 min; recovery,hours to days; requires higherdoses than most other reptiles20-40 mg/kg SC, IM, ICe(sedation), to 40-80 mg/kg(anesthesia)273Crocodilians/induction, <30-60 min;recovery, hours to days; in largeranimals, 12-15 mg/kg maypermit tracheal intubation; notrecommended alone in Nilecrocodiles26020-100 mg/kg IM272 Crocodilians/lower dose forsedation, higher for anesthesia(requires intermi�ent positivepressure ventilation for hours)Ketamine (K)/acepromazine(A)(K) 120 mg/kg + (A)1 mg/kg IM3Caspian pond turtles/stage IIIanesthesia; prolonged recoveryKetamine (K)/butorphanol(B)See (K) dosages + (B)≤1.5 mg/kg IM63Snakes/anesthesia with improvedmuscle relaxation(K) 10-30 mg/kg + (B) 0.5-1.5 mg/kg IM63Chelonians/minor surgicalprocedures (i.e., shell repair)Ketamine(K)/dexmedetomidine(De)(K) 5-7 mg/kg + (De) 0.025-0.07 mg/kg IV212Red-eared sliders, Eastern paintedturtles, yellow-spo�ed Amazonriver turtles, otherundocumented turtlespecies/anesthetic induction******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments(K) 6 mg/kg + (De)0.03 mg/kg IV178Hatchling leatherback seaturtles/anesthesia; reversal withatipamezole (0.3 mg/kg IM, IV)(K) 10 mg/kg + (De)0.05 mg/kg IM,IV377,378Desert tortoises/premedication(K) 10 mg/kg + (De)0.2 mg/kg IN66Red-eared sliders/moderatesedation; allowed intubation;heart rate decreased(K) 10 mg/kg + (De)0.2 mg/kgintracloacal337Yellow-bellied sliders/minimalsedationKetamine (K)/diazepam (D)c See (K) dosages + (D) 0.2-0.8 mg/kg IM63Snakes/anesthesia with improvedmuscle relaxation(K) 44 mg/kg + (D)0.25 mg/kg IM; (K)44 mg/kg + (D)0.5 mg/kg IM; (K)22 mg/kg + (D)0.25 mg/kg IM; (K)22 mg/kg + (D)0.5 mg/kg IM4Greek tortoises/significant sedationwith high doses of (K) + either(D) dose and low dose of (K)with high dose of (D); moderatesedation with lower doses of (K)and (D)(K) 60-80 mg/kg + (D) 0.2-1 mg/kg IM63Chelonians/anesthesia; musclerelaxation(K) 120 mg/kg + (D)2 mg/kg IM3Caspian pond turtles; stage IIIanesthesiaKetamine (K)/ medetomidine(Me)b— Medetomidine is no longercommercially available in theU.S., but can be compounded;breverse medetomidine withatipamezole(K) 10 mg/kg + (Me) 0.1-0.3 mg/kg IM108Most species(K) 5-10 mg/kg + (Me) 0.1-0.15 mg/kg IM, IV63Lizards (iguanas)(K) 100 mg/kg + (Me)0.2 mg/kg IM26Black and white tegus/surgicalanesthesia with redosing of 50%original dose every 4 hr for up to16 hr(K) 3-8 mg/kg + (Me) 0.025-0.08 mg/kg IV276Giant tortoises (Aldabra)(K) 4 mg/kg + (Me)0.04 mg/kg IM189Green sea turtles******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments(K) 4-10 mg/kg + (Me) 0.04-0.14 mg/kg IM128Chelonians/sedation and musclerelaxation for shell repair (K) 5 mg/kg + (Me)0.05 mg/kg IV73Loggerhead sea turtles/induction ofanesthesia for intubation (K) 5 mg/kg + (Me)0.05 mg/kg IM352Tortoises (gopher)/light anesthesia;tracheal intubation; inconsistentresults (K) 5-10 mg/kg IM + (Me)0.1-0.15 mg/kg IM, IV63Tortoises (small-medium) (K) 7.5 mg/kg + (Me)0.075 mg/kg IM352Tortoises (gopher)/anesthesia;tracheal intubation (K) 10 mg/kg + (Me)0.1 mg/kg IM247Hybrid Galapagos tortoises/sedation (K) 10-20 mg/kg IM + (Me)0.15-0.3 mg/kg IM, IV63Turtles (fresh water) (K) 15 mg/kg (also S-ketamine) + (Me)0.1 mg/kg IM42Hermann’s and spur-thighedtortoises/sedation with initialbradycardia and no apparentanalgesia (K) 5-10 mg/kg + (Me) 0.1-0.15 mg/kg IM186American alligators/adults (K) 10-15 mg/kg + (Me)0.15-0.25 mg/kg IM186American alligators/juveniles(K) 15 mg/kg + (Me)0.3 mg/kg IM334Nile crocodiles/anesthetic induction;decreased heart rate andrespiratory rateKetamine (K)/ medetomidine(Me)/midazolam (Mi)(K) 5 mg/kg + (Me)0.15 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kgSC297Leopard tortoises/deep sedationKetamine (K)/medetomidine(Me)/morphine (Mo)(K) 2.5 mg/kg + (Me)0.15 mg/kg + (Mo)1 mg/kg SC298African spurred tortoises/deepsedation and analgesiaKetamine (K)/medetomidine(Me)/tramadol (T)(K) 5 mg/kg + (Me)0.05 mg/kg + (T)5 mg/kgIM410Green sea turtles (hatchlings)/short-term anesthesia; reversed withatipamezole; apnea with normalblood gasesKetamine (K)/midazolam(Mi)(K) 20 mg/kg + (Mi)2 mg/kg IM12(K)60 mg/kg + (Mi)2 mg/kg IM12Giant Amazon river turtles/sedationwith both combinations; morerapid and prolonged sedationwith higher K dosage(K) 20-40 mg/kg + (Mi)≤2 mg/kg IM40Snapping turtles/sedation; musclerelaxation******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments(K) 60-80 mg/kg + (Mi)≤2 mg/kg IM63Chelonians/anesthesia; musclerelaxationKetamine (K)/propofol (P) (K) 25-30 mg/kg IM + (P)7 mg/kg IV63,379Chelonians/administer propofol ≈70-80 min post-ketamine; seepropofolKetamine (K)/xylazine (X) (K) 10 mg/kg + (X)1 mg/kgIM422Snake species/induction forisoflurane anesthesia; drugsadministered in front half ofbody(K)120 mg/kg + (X)1 mg/kgIM3Caspian pond turtles/stage IIIanesthesia but prolongedrecovery(K) 30 mg/kg + (X)1 mg/kgIM61Broad-snouted caiman juveniles/provided mild sedation aftereither forelimb or hindlimbadministrationAgent Dosage Species/CommentsLidocaine (0.5-2%) Local or topical63 Most species/local analgesia; infiltrate to effect(e.g., 0.01 mL 2% lidocaine used for localblock for IO catheter placement iniguanas);31 often used in conjunction withchemical immobilization4 mg/kg IM124 Bearded dragons; did not potentiate alfaxalonesedation but caused transient increased heartrate0.158 mg/cmintrathecal(combinedwithepinephrinehemitartrate)410Green iguana/spinal anesthesia2 mg/kgintrathecal(IT)123,294Turtles and tortoises/surgicalanalgesia/anesthesia of caudal body; beardeddragons 50-75% success rate0.038 mL/kg (1mL/20-25 kg)394Hybrid Galapagos tortoises/surgicalanalgesia/anesthesia for phallectomyMedetomidineb — Medetomidine is no longer commerciallyavailable, but can be compounded;b reversewith atipamezole; produces poorimmobilization alone; see ketamine andbutorphanol for combinations0.1-0.15 mg/kgIM63Most species******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments0.06-0.15 mg/kg419 Lizards0.15 mg/kgIM435,436Desert tortoises, crocodilians/sedation;incomplete immobilization; generallyproduces bradycardia and bradypnea0.04-0.15 mg/kgIM273Crocodilians/need to reverse0.13-0.17 mg/kgIM355,356Crocodilians/moderate sedation; atipamezole(0.1 mg/kg IM) for reversal0.5-0.75 mg/kgIM355,356Crocodilians/sedation only when administeredin thoracic limb (versus pelvic limb and tail);atipamezole (2.5 mg/kg) reversalMeperidine(Mp)/midazolam (Mi)(Mp)1 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg IM27Green sea turtles/premedicationMethohexital (Brevital,Lilly)— Recovery time of red-sided garter snakes at 21°C(70°F), 125 min; 26°C (79°F), 86 min; 31°C(88°F), 64 min; thinner snakes had longerrecovery times; if within 5 wk of parturition,mean recovery time 2x as long as nongravid;time post-feeding had no effect at 1, 3, 10days3755-20 mg/kg SC,IV63Most species/induction, 5-30 min; recovery, 1-5hr; use at 0.125-0.5% concentration; muchspecies variability; decrease dose 20-30% foryoung animals; avoid use in debilitatedanimals9-10 mg/kg SC,ICe347Colubrids/induction, ≥22 min; recovery, 2-5 hr;does not produce soft tissue irritation seenwith other barbiturates; may need to adjustdosage in obese snakesMetomidate 10 mg/kg IM108 Snakes/profound sedation; not available in theUnited StatesMidazolam — See butorphanol, ketamine for combinations;can be reversed by flumazenil0.1-1 mg/kg18 Multiple species/mild to moderate sedation2 mg/kg IM63,327 Most species/preanesthetic; increases theefficacy of ketamine; effective in snappingturtles, not in painted turtles; ball pythonsmoderate, short-term sedation1 mg/kg IM262 Ball pythons/reduced MAC of isoflurane0.5-2 mg/kg IM63 Lizards******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 1 mg/kg IM41 Black and white tegus/mild sedation withoutantinociception to a noxious thermalstimulus 2 mg/kg IM48 Green iguanas/sedation 0.5-1.5 mg/kgIN114Indian star tortoises, red-footed tortoises/nosignificant sedation 1.5 mg/kg IM359 Red-eared sliders/sedation; onset, 5.5 min;duration, 82 min; recovery, 40 min; muchindividual variability 2-3 mg/kg IV178Hatchling leatherback sea turtles/ sedationNaloxone 0.04-2 mg/kgSC432,434Corn snakes, bearded dragons, red-earedsliders/µ-opioid agonist reversal4 mg/kg IM150 Green tree monitors/reversal of butorphanolNeostigmine 0.03-0.25 mg/kgIM2750.063 mg/kg IV2750.07-0.14 mg/kgIM335Crocodiles/gallamine reversal; may causeemesis and lacrimation; fast 24-48 hr beforeuse; effects enhanced if combined with 75mg hyaluronidase per dose whenadministered SC, IM275Nitrous oxide 50% admixed withisoflurane262Ball pythons/minimal reduction in MAC ofisofluranePentobarbital — Rarely used as an anesthetic agent in reptiles15-30 mg/kg ICe328 Snakes/induction, 30-60 min; duration, ≥2 hr;prolonged recovery (risk of occasionalfatalities); venomous snakes require twice asmuch as nonvenomous snakes; avoid use inlizards10-18 mg/kg ICe328 Chelonians7.5-15 mg/kg ICe,or 8 mg/kgIM63,238Crocodilians******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsPropofol — If administered in supravertebral sinus, beaware for potential submeningealdelivery;380 see ketamine for combination;anesthesia; rapid, smooth induction; maygive 15-25 min anesthesia and restraint inmost species; rapid, excitement-freerecovery; must be administered IV (slowly)(no inflammation if goes perivascularly);may be administered IO; dosages may bereduced by as much as 50% in premedicated(e.g., ketamine) animals; may cause apneaand bradycardia; intubation and assistedventilation generally required; considered bymany to be parenteral agent of choice forinducing anesthesia0.3-0.5 mg/kg/minIV, IO constantrate infusion,or 0.5-1 mg/kgIV, IO periodicbolus420Most species/maintenance anesthesia; mustprovide respiratory and thermal support 5-10 mg/kg IV,intra-cardiac15,63Snakes 10 mg/kgintracardiac320Ball pythons/anesthetic induction for isofluranemaintenance, but prolonged recovery; mild,resolving cardiac lesions 15 mg/kg IV37 South American ra�lesnakes/ anestheticinduction 3-5 mg/kg IV, IO183 Lizards (iguanas)/intubation and minordiagnostic procedures; may need to give anadditional dose in 3-5 min; lesscardiopulmonary depression than withhigher doses 5-10 mg/kg IV,IO34Iguanas/higher dose is recommended forinduction for short duration procedures orintubation 10 mg/kg IV,IO34,108,342Lizards, snakes/0.25 mg/kg/min may be givenfor maintenance;243green iguanas/anesthetic induction3422 mg/kg IV63 Giant tortoises3-5 mg/kg IVsupravertebralsinus128Chelonians/sedation (i.e., shell repair)5 mg/kg IV162 Snapping turtles/anesthetic induction******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments10 mg/kg IV(supravertebralsinus)502Red-eared sliders/40-85 min anesthesia12-15 mg/kgIV105,446Chelonians/lower dosages (5-10 mg/kg IV) maybe used; 1 mg/kg/min may be given formaintenance6320 mg/kg IV(supravertebralsinus)502Red-eared sliders/60-120 min anesthesia10-15 mg/kg IV273 Crocodilians/duration, 0.5-1.5 hr; maintain ongas anesthetics; experimental IM withhyaluronidaseRocuronium (Zemuron,Organon)0.25-0.5 mg/kgIM231Box turtles/neuromuscular blocking agent; noanalgesia; for intubation only and small,non-painful proceduresSevoflurane To effect63,399 Most species/anesthesia; rapid induction andrecovery when intubatedSuccinylcholine — No analgesia; narrow margin of safety;generally not recommended, but includedfor completeness; intermi�ent positivepressure ventilation generally required;paralysis occurs in 5-30 min; avoid ifexposed to organophosphate parasiticideswithin last 30 days; administer minimalamount required to perform procedure0.25-1 mg/kg IM63 Most species0.75-1 mg/kg IM63 Large lizards0.25-1.5 mg/kgIM362Chelonians/induction, 15-30 min; recovery, 45-90 min; facilitates intubation0.5-1 mg/kg IM63 Box turtles/induction, 20-30 min0.25 mg/kg IM260 Crocodilians0.4-1 mg/kg IM362 Alligators/rapid onset; 3-5 mg/kg in smalleranimals have been used 0.5-5 mg/kgIM63,272Crocodilians/variable induction and recoveryperiodsThiopental 19-31 mg/kg IV494 Green sea turtles/anesthesia; induction, 5-10min; recovery, <6 hr; erratic anesthesia******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsTiletamine/zolazepam(Telazol, Fort Dodge)— Sedation, anesthesia; severe respiratorydepression possible (may need toventilate);243 variable results; may haveprolonged recovery; use lower end of doserange in heavier species; good for musclerelaxation prior to intubation;130,386 otheranesthetic agents may be preferable4-5 mg/kg SC, IM63 Most species/sedation; induction, 9-15 min;recovery, 1-12 hr; adequate for most non-invasive procedures5-10 mg/kg IM63 Most species3 mg/kg IM243,388 Snakes/facilitates handling and intubation oflarge snakes; induction, 30-45 min;prolonged recovery; ball pythons short-termanesthesia with prolonged recovery3-5 mg/kg IM63 Snakes, lizards/sedation10-30 mg/kg IM,328to 20-40 mg/kgIM63,450Snakes, lizards/induction, 8-20 min; recovery, 2-10 hr; variable results; longer sedation andrecovery times at 22°C (72°F) than at 30°C(86°F); good sedation in boa constrictors at25 mg/kg IM; generally need to supplementwith inhalation agents for surgicalanesthesia; some snakes died at 55 mg/kg20 mg/kg SC,IM365Bearded dragons/deeper sedation ifadministered IM compared to SCfor minor procedures3.5-14 mg/kg IM328(generally 4-8 mg/kg)Chelonians/sedation; induction, 8-20 min; doesnot produce satisfactory anesthesia even at88 mg/kg635-10 mg/kg IM,IV63Large tortoises/facilitates intubation; if light,mask with isoflurane rather than redosing1-2 mg/kg IM272 Crocodilians/recovery takes several hours2-10 mg/kg IM63 Large crocodilians/may permit intubation5-10 mg/kg SC, IM,ICe (sedation),10-40 mg/kg(anesthesia)273Crocodilians15 mg/kg IM79 Alligators/induction, >20 min; adequate forminor proceduresXylazine — Infrequently used; variable effects; potentiallyreversible with yohimbine; preanesthetic forketamine; see ketamine for combination 0.1-1.25 mg/kg IM,IV63Most species******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 0.1-1 mg/kg IM272 Crocodilians/atipamezole be�er reversal thanyohimbine 1-2 mg/kg IM273 Nile crocodilesYohimbine (Yobine,Lloyd)— Xylazine reversal; rarely indicated; atipameazolecommonly used to reverse all α2 agonistsaRefer to Table 4.7 for other preferred injectable sedation protocols used in reptiles.bMedetomidine is no longer commercially available although it can be obtained from selectcompounding services; dosages are listed here as a guide for possible alternative use ofdexmedetomidine, an α2 agonist that is the active optical enantiomer of racemic compoundmedetomidine; dexmedetomidine is generally used at ½ the dose of medetomidine but thesame volume due to equivalent concentrations of the active enantiomer; both compoundstend to have similar effects.cDiazepam is not soluble in aquesous solution; admixing with aquesous solutions or fluids canresult in precipitation; administering SC or IM can be painful and irritating; for SC or IMadministration, midazolam may be preferred.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.6Analgesic (Including Antiinflammatory) Agents Usedin Reptiles.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAmitriptylinehydrochloride3 mg/kg ICe288 Dampened the nociceptive response to SC formalin andcapsaicin injections, but not a thermal noxiousstimulusBupivacaine 1-2 mg/kg localq4-12h prn63Most species/local anesthesia; 4 mg/kg maximum dose1 mg/kgintrathecal294Turtles, tortoises/regional analgesia/anesthesiaBuprenorphine 0.2 mg/kg SC300 No evidence of analgesic efficacy in red-eared sliders orother reptile speciesButorphanol — Recent studies call into question use of particular dosesor of this drug in general in providing analgesia inreptiles, including red-eared sliders, ballpythons,corn snakes, bearded dragons, green iguanas, andblack and white tegus;; respiratory depression is acommon side effect 237,416,432-4340.4-1 mg/kg SC,IM63Most species/sedation; preanesthetic; 0.2 mg/kg IM usedexperimentally in tortoises631 mg/kg IM131 Green iguanas/ineffective for analgesia; presence ofobserver may affect iguana response20 mg/kg SC237 Red-eared sliders/ineffective for surgical analgesiaCarprofen 1-4 mg/kg PO, SC,IM, IV q24h,follow withhalf the doseq24-72h269,316Most species/nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; no efficacydata in any reptile speciesDexmedetomidine 0.1-0.2 mg/kgSC51Ball pythons/hermal antinociception with minimalsedation0.2 mg/kg IM41 Black and white tegus/antinociception to thermalnoxious stimulusEtodolac 5 mg/kg PO q72hx 30 days361Komodo dragonsFentanyl Transdermal 12µg/h91Ball pythons/PK; transdermal analgesia; using atransdermal therapeutic system; therapeuticconcentrations, as defined in mammals (1 ng/mL),were reached in 4 hr and sustained throughout thestudy; plasma levels were higher than in mammalssuggesting the potential to use smaller dosages; noadverse effects noted******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments12 µg/htransdermalpatch tocranial epaxialmuscles235Ball pythons/high plasma concentrations (aboveanalgesic threshold in mammals); analgesic efficacynot proven in any snake species, but anecdotalevidence from certain snake clinical casesdemonstrated improved condition after applicationof patch10 µg/kg/h IOconstant rateinfusion426Bearded dragon/administered during surgicalprocedure12 µg/htransdermalpatch tocaudodorsallumbarregion146Prehensile-tailed skinks/no side-effects reported after 24hr when skink blood levels reached humantherapeutic levels; environmental temperature cansignificantly affect absorption0.05 mg/kg SC227 Slider turtle species (Trachemys dorbigni, Trachemysscripta elegans); antinociceptive to interdigital forcepspinchFlunixinmeglumine0.1-0.5 mg/kg IMq12-24h269Most species/nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; use formaximum of 3 days; no evidence of efficacy0.5-2 mg/kg IMq12-24h63Most species/nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; noevidence of efficacy1-2 mg/kg IMq24h x2treatments441Lizards/post-surgical nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; noevidence of efficacyFlurbiprofensodiumOphthalmicsolution(0.03%); 1drop topicallyin affected eyeq6-12h243Empirical use as a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory; somerecommend q12-24hHydromorphone 0.5-1 mg/kg SCq24h300Red-eared sliders/analgesia 0.5 mg/kg SC180a Bearded dragons, red-eared sliders/PK; determinedadministration frequency of q24h (bearded dragons)and q12-24h (red-eared sliders)Ketoprofen — Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory2 mg/kg PO, SC,IM q24-48h280,471Most species, green iguanas/[PK], loggerhead seaturtles/frequently used due to historical evidence ofsafety; no efficacy data******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 2 or 20 mg/kg IMq24h × 14days475aBearded dragons/safety; 2 mg/kg IM q24h x 14 dayscaused no changes in plasma biochemical orhistologic parameters of renal, gastrointestinal,hepatic, or muscular systems; 20 mg/kg IM q24h x 14days caused severe muscle necrosis of triceps but noother biologic changes; fecal occult blood wasnegative and clo�ing times were unaffected at eitherdosage 2 mg/kg IM, IV467 Loggerhead sea turtles/PK; study demonstrated a singleIM or IV dose had a 24 hr duration 2 mg/kg IMq24h × up to 5days179Loggerhead sea turtles/analgesia; dosage appears safewith respect to blood clo�ing and blood dataKetorolac 0.25 mg/kg IM70 Eastern box turtles/PK; study demonstrated a singledose had a 24 hr durationLidocaine (0.5-2%) 2-5 mg/kg local63 Most species/10 mg/kg maximum dosageLocal or topical63 Most species/local analgesia; infiltrate to effect (e.g., 0.01mL 2% lidocaine used for local block for IO catheterplacement in iguanas); often used in conjunctionwith chemical immobilization0.2 mL/10 cmcarapacelengthintrathecal141Green sea turtles/cutaneous fibropapilloma excision;effective clinical analgesia4 mg/kgintrathecal294Turtles, tortoises/regional analgesiaLidocaine(L)/morphine(Mo)(L) 2 mg/kg + (Mo)0.1 mg/kgintrathecal378Desert tortoises/orchiectomy analgesiaMeloxicam 0.1-0.5 mg/kg PO,SC q24-48h63Most species0.3 mg/kg IMq24h354Ball pythons/physiologic changes not consistent withanalgesia0.2 mg/kg PO, IVq24h110Green iguanas/PK; no evidence of efficacy0.1 mg/kg IM, IVq24h257Loggerhead sea turtles/PK; plasma concentrations notconsistent with analgesia0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO,IM q24h x 4-10days128Chelonians/no evidence of efficacy0.2 mg/kg IM,IV;472 SCq24h377,378Red-eared sliders/PK; plasma concentrations consistentwith therapeutic efficacy for 48 hr by IM and IVadministration routes;472 Mojave desert tortoises,post surgical nonsteroidal antiinflammatory******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments0.2-0.4 mg/kg IMq24h212Red-eared slider turtles, Eastern painted turtles, yellow-spo�ed Amazon river turtles, other undocumentedturtle species/nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory; noevidence of efficacy0.5 mg/kg PO, IMq24h or0.22 mg/kg IVq24h398Red-eared sliders/PK; found be�er absorption IM vsPO;398 after IV administration, plasma levelsdecreased rapidly and the elimination half-life was7.57 hr1 mg/kg SC349 Kemp’s ridleys, green sea turtles/PK; resulted in plasmaconcentrations >0.5 µg/mL for 12 hr for Kemp’sridleys and 120 hr for greens; administration of2 mg/kg SC to loggerhead sea turtles resulted inadequate plasma concentrations for only 4 hrMeperidine 5-10 mg/kg IMq12-24h63Most species/analgesia; no noticeable effect in snakeseven at 200 mg/kg20 mg/kg IM q12-24h269Most species/analgesia 2-4 mg/kg ICe q6-8h63Lizards 1-5 mg/kg IM q6-12h229,431,480Turtles, crocodiles/analgesic efficacy of short duration 2-4 mg/kg q6-12hICe63Nile crocodiles/analgesiaMethadone 3-5 mg/kg SC, IMq24h86,431Aquatic turtles/analgesiaMorphine — No effective dose for analgesia documented in cornsnakes4340.1-0.2 mg/kgintrathecal115Black and white tegus5-10 mg/kg SC270 Black and white tegus/antinociceptive using a thermalnoxious stimulus10 mg/kg IMq24h434,488Bearded dragons/analgesia; ball pythons/no analgesia0.1-0.2 mg/kgintrathecal294Turtles, tortoises/thermal analgesia for 48 hr; regionalanalgesia caudal body1 mg/kg IMq24h212Red-eared sliders, Eastern painted turtle, yellow-spo�edAmazon river turtle, other undocumented turtlespecies/analgesia1.5-6.5 mg/kg SC,IMq24h431,432,434Red-eared sliders (long lasting respiratory depression),freshwater crocodiles, Anolis lizards/may be effectivethermal analgesia******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments2 mg/kg SCq24h237Red-eared sliders/surgical analgesia 10 mg/kg IM85 Bearded dragons/antinociceptive using a thermalnoxious stimulus 0.5-4 mg/kg ICeq24h436Crocodilians/analgesiaNaloxone 0.04-2 mg/kgSC431,432,434Red-eared sliders, bearded dragons, corn snakes/µ-opioid agonist reversalOxymorphone 0.025-0.1 mg/kgIV630.05-0.2 mg/kgSC, IM q12-48h630.5-1.5 mg/kgIM63Some species/analgesia; no efficacy studies; avoid incases with hepatic or renal dysfunction; nonoticeable effect in snakes, even at 1.5 mg/kg63See abovePethidine — See meperidinePrednisolone 2-5 mg/kg PO, IMq24-48h269Most species/antiinflammatoryProparacaine(0.5%)Topical toeye163,283,405,421Iguanas/desensitizes surface of eye; ineffective inanimals with spectacles; bearded dragons/IOP byrebound tonometry;421 Kemp’s ridley sea turtles/onedrop provided 45 min duration of action;163 do notexceed toxic dose 2 mg/kg;63 Yacare caiman/IOP byapplanation tonometry405Tapentadol 10 mg/kg IM q48-72h156,157Red-eared sliders, yellow-bellied sliders/analgesiaTramadol 11 mg/kg PO166 Bearded dragons5-10 mg/kg PO,SC q48-72h22Red-eared sliders, sea turtles/thermal analgesia; higherdoses may affect ventilation5-10 mg/kg POq72h350Loggerhead sea turtles/PK; plasma concentrationsconsistent with efficacy for 48 hr (5 mg/kg PO) or 72hr (10 mg/kg PO)10 mg/kg PO q48-72h437Turtles, tortoises/analgesia10 mg/kg IM q48-72h159Yellow-bellied sliders/PK and PD comparing forelimband hindlimb administration; analgesia; plasmaconcentrations consistent with analgesia in bothforelimb and hindlimb******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.7Preferred Injectable Sedation Protocols Used in Select Reptiles.301,400,430There are many individual and species differences with respect to sedative efficacy, so thesecombinations can be adjusted based on personal experience with individual reptilepatients.Most combinations listed are partially or fully reversible.SnakesA general note about snake sedation: there is recent published and anecdotal evidence that somesnake species (e.g., ball pythons [Python regius]),262 administered midazolam will renarcotizeafter administration of flumazenil: these snakes should be monitored and, if necessary,administered an additional dose of flumazenil.Drug Protocol Dose & Route CommentsAlfaxalone 10-30 mg/kg SC, IM,IVRapid sedation if administered IV; higherdoses can contribute to a surgical plane ofanesthesia; not reversibleAlfaxalone(A) + midazolam (Mi)(A) 5 mg/kg + (Mi)0.5 mg/kgSC, IMModerate sedation; antagonize midazolamDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine (K)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)10 mg/kgSC, IMModerate-to-deep sedation; antagonizedexmedetomidineDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + midazolam (Mi)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)5-10 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg SC, IMDeep sedation; antagonize dexmedetomidineand midazolamDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + fentanyl (F)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)10 mg/kg + (F) 12mcg/h patch(snakes less than5 kg)Deep sedation with potential long-termanalgesia; antagonize dexmedetomidineLizardsDrug Protocol Dose & Route CommentsAlfaxalone 10-30 mg/kg SC, IM,IVRapid sedation if administered IV; higherdoses can contribute to a surgical plane ofanesthesia; not reversibleDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine (K)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)5-10 mg/kg SC,IMModerate sedation, which is deeper with thehigher dose of ketamine; dexmedetomidineantagonized with atipamezoleDexmedetomidinea(De) + midazolam (Mi)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg SC, IMModerate sedation; antagonize withatipamezole and flumazenilDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + midazolam (Mi)(De) 0.05-0.1 mg/kg + (K)5 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg SC, IMModerate-to-deep sedation; antagonizedexmedetomidine and midazolamDexmedetomidinea(De) + midazolam (Mi)(De)0.05 mg/kg + (Mi)Deep sedation with analgesia******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******+ hydromorphone (H) 1 mg/kg + (H)0.5 mg/kg SC, IMDexmedetomidinea(De) + midazolam(Mi) + morphine (Mo)(De)0.05 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg + (Mo)2 mg/kg SC, IMDeep sedation with analgesiaCheloniansA general note about chelonian sedation, particularly tortoise species: anecdotally, some speciesof tortoises (or some individuals) are quite resistant to typical sedation protocols. Allcombinations should be administered in front half of body for best results.Drug Protocol Dose & Route CommentsDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine (K)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)10 mg/kg SC, IMModerate sedation; dexmedetomidineantagonized with atipamezoleDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + midazolam (Mi)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)5-10 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg SC, IMDeeper sedation than dexmedetomidine andketamine alone; use atipamezole andflumazenil to antagonizedexmedetomidine and midazolam,respectivelyDexmedetomidinea(De) + alfaxalone (A)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (A)5-10 mg/kg SC,IMModerate sedation; dexmedetomidineantagonized with atipamzoleDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + hydromorphone(H)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)5 mg/kg + (H)0.5 mg/kg SC, IMModerate-to-deep sedation; good analgesia formore painful proceduresDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + morphine (Mo)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)5 mg/kg + (Mo)1.5 mg/kg SC, IMModerate-to-deep sedation; good analgesia formore painful proceduresCrocodiliansDrug Protocol Dose & Route CommentsDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine (K)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)10 mg/kg SC, IMModerate sedation; rapid recovery afteratipamzole reversalDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + midazolam (Mi)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)5 mg/kg + (Mi)1 mg/kg SC, IMModerate-to-deep sedation; antagonizedexmedetomidine and midazolamDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + hydromorphone(H)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)5 mg/kg + (H)0.5 mg/kg SC, IMModerate-to-deep sedation with analgesia;antagonize dexmedetomidineDexmedetomidinea(De) + ketamine(K) + morphine (Mo)(De) 0.1 mg/kg + (K)5 mg/kg + (Mo)2 mg/kg SC, IMModerate-to-deep sedation with analgesia;antagonize dexmedetomidineTiletamine/zolazepam(Telazol)5-15 mg/kg SC, IM Moderate-to-deep sedation; prolongedrecoveries******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Abbreviations: IM=intramuscular; SC=subcutaneous; TC=transcutaneous.aMedetomidine can be substituted for dexmedetomdine in any protocol listed, but the doseshould be 1.5 to 2 times the dexmedetomidine dose. When using medetomidine, increasingketamine dose may be helpful.Atipamzole is typically administered at the same volume or 10 times the dose ofdexmedetomidine; or the same volume or 5 times the dose of medetomidine. Flumazenilantagonizes midazolam and is typically dosed at 0.05 mg/kg SC or IM. In cases in whichmorphine or hydromorphone needs reversing, administer naloxone (0.2 mg/kg) SC or IM.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.8Hormones and Steroids Used in Reptiles.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsArginine vasotocin(AVT) (SigmaChemical)0.01-1 µg/kg IV(preferred),ICe274 q12-24h × severaltreatmentsMost species/dystocias; administer 30-60 min afterCa lactate/Ca glycerophosphate; more effectivein reptiles than oxytocin but not commerciallyavailable for use in animals; higher doses havebeen reported; 0.5 µg/kg commonlyrecommendedCalcitonin 1.5 U/kg SC q8h ×14-21 days prn6350 U/kg IM, repeatin 14 days63Most species (e.g., iguanas)/severe nutritionalsecondary hyperparathyroidism; administerafter Ca supplementation; do not give ifhypocalcemic50 U/kg q7d × 2-3doses281Green iguanas/salmon calcitonin; do not give ifhypocalcemicDeslorelin acetate — No success with use in female reptile reproductivedisease or cessation of normal egg production674.75 mg implantSC404Bearded dragons/abnormal aggression in juveniles;decreased serum testosterone; behavior ceasedDexamethasone 0.2 mg/kg IM, IVq24h x3 days243Most species/laryngeal or pharyngeal edema andinflammation0.6-1.25 mg/kg IM,IV63Most species/shock (septic/traumatic)2-4 mg/kg IM, IV, IOq24h x 3 days395Most species0.3-1.5 mg/kg IM, IV,IO222Chelonians/hyperthermiaDexamethasonesodiumphosphate0.1-0.25 mg/kg SC,IM, IV63Most species/shock (septic/traumatic)Insulin 1-5 U/kg IM, ICeq24-72h443Snakes, chelonians/doses are empirical and must beadjusted based on response to therapy andserial blood glucose; doses administered ICemay take 24-48 hr before a response is noted 5-10 U/kg IM, ICeq24-72h443Lizards, crocodilians/see aboveLeuprolide acetate(Lupron Depot1.875 mg/mL,Abbo�)0.4 mg/kg IM239 Iguanas/did not suppress testosterone levels inmalesLevothyroxine 0.02 mg/kg POq48h172Geckos/post thyroidectomy; lifetime management******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments0.02 mg/kg POq48h351Tortoises/hypothyroidism; stimulates feeding indebilitated tortoises0.025 mg/kg q24h inAM137Tortoises/monitor T4 levelsMethylprednisolone 1 mg/kg IV q24h222 Chelonians/ivermectin toxicityNandrolone (Deca-Durabolin,Orgamon)0.5-5 mg/kg IM q7-28d63Most species/hepatic lipidosis1 mg/kg IM q7-28d63 Lizards/anabolic steroid; reduces proteincatabolism; may stimulate erythropoiesisOxytocin — Dystocias; results are variable; works well inchelonians, less so in snakes and lizards;generally administer 1 hr after Caadministration; use multiple doses with caution1-10 U/kg IM63,243 Most species/higher end of the range is commonlyused; may be repeated up to 3 treatments at90 min intervals with increasing dosage2092 U/kg IM q4-6h ×1-3treatments17Most species1-5 U/kg IM, repeatin 1 hr104Lizards/alternatively, 5 U/kg by slow IV or IO over4-8 hr1-2,47 2-20,311 or 10-2063 U/kg IMChelonians1-20 U/kg IMq90min ×3treatments atincreased doses,or 50%-100% firstdose 1-12 hr later,or IO drip456Chelonians2 U/kg IV q2h102 Red-eared sliders/faster onset vs IM; fewer animalsrequired 2nd or 3rd doses vs IM routePrednisolone 2-5 mg/kg PO, IMq12-24h63Most species/analgesia (chronic pain)0.5 mg/kg q24h PO,SC, IM × 14 days,then q48h untilPCV stable243Lizards/autoimmune hemolytic anemia4 mg/kg q12h161 Parson’s chameleon/autoimmune hemolyticanemia; blood transfusion from sibling;iatrogenic osteomyelitis******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsPrednisolone Nasuccinate (Solu-Delta Cortef,Pharmacia &Upjohn)5-10 mg/kg IM, IV,IO106Most species/shock; brain swelling fromhyperthermia; may help reducenephrocalcinosisPrednisone 0.5-1 mg/kg PO, SC,IM, IV63Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,myeloproliferative disease0.8 mg/kg q48h150 Most species/chronic T-lymphocytic leukemia; maycombine with chlorambucil, but need tomonitor uric acid levelsStanozolol(Winstrol-V,Winthrop)5 mg/kg IM q7dprn63Most species/anabolic steroid; management ofcatabolic disease states******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.9Nutritional/Mineral/Fluid Support Used in Reptiles.aAgent Dosage Species/CommentsCalcium PO prn111 Most species/dietary sources includecrushed cu�lebone, oyster shell,egg shell, tablets of Ca salts, orother commercially availableproductsCalcium carbonate (Rep-Cal, Rep-Cal Labs; ReptiCalcium, Zoo Med;Fluker’s powdered orliquid forms of calcium)PO prn111 Omnivores, herbivores,insectivores/dietary CasupplementCalcium glubionate (Neo-Calglucon, Sandoz;Calciquid, BreckenridgePharmaceuticals;Calcionate, Rugby)10 mg/kg PO q12-24hprn63All species/nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidism25-50 mg/kg PO q24hprn296All species/nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidism360 mg/kg (1 mL/kg) POq12-24h prn32Most species/nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidism;hypocalcemia; dystocia; ensureadequate UVB exposure andproper nutritionCalcium gluconate 50-100 mg/kg SC, IM, IV296 Most species/hypocalcemia (lowionized Ca); hypocalcemic muscletremors, seizures, dystocia, orflaccid paresis in lizards; whenpatient is stable, switch to oral Ca;should be diluted in fluids100 mg/kg SC, IM, ICe q6-24h32,316Most species/hypocalcemia (lowionized Ca); hypocalcemic muscletremors, seizures, dystocia, orflaccid paresis in lizards; whenpatient is stable, switch to oral CaCalciumgluconate/borogluconate10-50 mg/kg SC, IM63 Most species/hypocalcemia;hypocalcemic dystociaCalcium glycerophosphate/calcium lactate(Calphosan, Glenwood)1-5 mg/kg SC, IM63 Most species/hypocalcemia;hypocalcemic dystocia10 mg/kg SC, IM, ICe q24hx 1-7 days63Lizards (iguanas)/hypocalcemia******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsCarnivore Care (OxbowAnimal Health)10-20 mL/kg PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24-48h63Carnivores/short-term nutritionalsupport; anorexia; prepareaccording to directions; begin afterrehydration and stable condition;more dilute in first feeding afteranorexia, gradually increaseconcentration over 3-5 days30 mL/kg (3% of bodyweight) PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24h;96 range of2%-10% body weightPO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24h296CarnivoresClinicare Canine-FelineLiquid Diet (Zoetis)Gavage prn495 Not a primary choice for feedingdebilitated reptiles; mostspecies/post omphalectomy; useCanine Formula for herbivoresand omnivores, and FelineFormula for carnivores; initiallydilute 1:1 with water andgradually increase to full strengthover 48 hr; generally precedenutritional supplementation with48-96 hr of water or electrolytesolution POCritical Care for Herbivores(Oxbow Animal Health)10-20 mL/kg PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24-48h63Herbivores/long-term nutritionalsupport; prepare according todirections; begin after rehydrationand stable condition30 mL/kg (3% of bodyweight) PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24h;96 range of 2-10%body weight PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24h296HerbivoresDextrose in water (2.5%,5%)PO, SC, IV, IO, ICe, EpiCe,prn238All species/hyperkalemia; can mixwith electrolye solutionsCalculated water deficitIV, IO63Most species/for intracellularrehydration when mentation isaltered and plasma Na >160mEq/L; for acute Na toxicosis,replace deficit in 12-24 hr; forchronic dehydration, slowlyreplace deficit over 48-72 hr******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsEmerAid Intensive CareCarnivore (Lafeber)1st feed = 0.5% BW; 2ndfeed = 1% BW; 3rdfeed = 2% BWCarnivores/nutritional support,severely debilitated, cachecticpatients; prepare according todirections; use when hydrated andstable condition; greater dilutionin first few feedings5-30 mL/kg gavage oresophagostomy tubeq24-72h63Carnivores3% BW PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24h;96 range of 2-10%BW PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24h296CarnivoresEmerAid Intensive CareHerbivore (Lafeber)1st feed = 0.5% BW; 2ndfeed = 1% BW; 3rdfeed = 2% BWHerbivores/nutritional support,severely debilitated, cachecticpatients; prepare according todirections; use when hydrated andstable condition; greater dilutionin first few feedings5-20 mL/kg gavage oresophagostomy tubeq12-48h63Herbivores3% BW PO or via gavage/esophagostomy q24h;96range of 2-10% BW POor viagavage/esophagostomyq24h296HerbivoresEmerAid Sustain Herbivore(Lafeber)30 mL/kg BW daily Herbivores/nutritional support forless debilitated patients; prepareaccording to directions; use whenhydrated and stable condition;greater dilution in first fewfeedingsEmeraid Intensive CareOmnivore (Lafeber)1st feed = 0.5% BW; 2ndfeed = 1% BW; 3rdfeed = 2% BWMost species/nutritional support,severely debilitated, cachecticpatients; prepare according todirections; use when hydrated andstable condition; greater dilutionin first few feedings 5-20 mL/kg gavage oresophagostomy tubeq12-48h63Omnivores******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments 3% BW PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24h;96 range of 2-10%BW PO or viagavage/esophagostomyq24h296OmnivoresHydroxyethyl starch(Hetastarch, HES)3-5 mL/kg slow IV or IObolus prn63All species/hypoalbuminemia;hypovolemic perfusion deficits;increased capillary permeability;use with crystalloids; reducecrystalloid volume 40%-60%; maxvolume 20 mL/kgIodine 2-4 mg/kg PO q24h × 14-21days, then q7d63Herbivores/iodine deficiency (i.e.,goiter); use in species fed agoitrogenic diet; can use amultivitamin-mineral mixture oriodized salt; suggested dailydietary iodine 0.03 mg/kg BW111Iron dextran 12 mg/kg IM 1-2 ×/wk x45days455Crocodilians/iron deficiency; in otherspecies for anemia63Lactated Ringer’s solution(LRS)15-40 mL/kg SC, IV, IOprn63Land turtles/fluid replacement; useextracoelomically after warmingthe patient; avoid lactate if hepaticinsufficiencyLRS + 0.9% saline (1:1solution)20 mL/kg/day ICe60 Loggerhead sea turtles/highestpercentage of acid-base recoveryand electrolyte balance comparedto LRS, saline, or 5% dextrose insaline (1:1)Maintenance crystalloidsolution: ½-strengthLRSand 2.5% dextroseSC, IV, IO, ICe, EpiCeprn63All species/maintenance fluid therapyafter losses have been replacedMultivitamin Products(ReptiVite, Zoo Med;Herptivite, RepCal;Repta-Vitamin, Fluker’s;Exo-Terra; Nekton)Dust on vegetables, fruits,or insects q84-168h439Herbivores, omnivores,insectivores/pre-formed vitaminA; minerals; multivitaminReplacement crystalloidsolutions (Normosol-R,Ceva; Plasma-Lyte,Baxter)15-25 mL/kg/d PO, SC, IV,IO, ICe, EpiCe prn63All species/replacement fluid therapy;warm to 29°C (84°F)24310-30 mL/kg q24h ordivided into 2-3boluses several hrapart238All species/ongoing regurgitation orsevere diarrhea******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsRinger’s solution forreptiles: 1 partNormosol-R + 2 parts2.5% dextrose in 0.45%saline or, 1 partNormosol-R + 1 part 5%dextrose + 1 part 0.9%saline10-20 mL/kg q24h63 All species/hypertonic dehydration orto prevent nephrotoxicity due toaminoglycosides15 (large reptiles) to 25(small reptiles) mL/kgq24h or divided into 2doses per day63All species/hypertonic dehydration;warm fluids to 28°C (82°F)20 mL/kg q12h63 Chelonians/severe dehydrationSelenium 0.028 mg/kg IM63 Lizards/deficiency; myopathySodium chloride (0.45%) PO, SC, IV, IO, ICe, EpiCe,prn238All species/hypertonic dehydration;correct deficits over 3 daysSodium chloride (0.9%) SC, IV, IO, ICe, EpiCe,prn63,238All species/hyperkalemia,hypercalcemia, hypochloremicmetabolic alkalosis; can mix withother crystalloid solutions,particularly 5% dextrose; use SC,ICe, EpiCe routes after patient iswarmVitamin A — Overdose causes epidermalsloughing; greater risk withaqueous parenteral formulation;for less severe cases, commercialformulated diets or reptilemultivitamin supplements maysuffice;63,111,329 may helpinfectious stomatitis2000 U/kg PO, SC, IM q7-14d x 2-4 treatments63Most species/hypovitaminosis A2000 U/30 g BW PO once,repeat in 7 days175,439Chameleons/eye swelling, respiratorydisease, hemipenile plugs,dysecdysis 200-300 U/kg SC, IM111 Turtles/hypovitaminosis A; give inconjunction with PO vitamin A (2-8 U/g feed DM)Vitamins A, D3, E (VitalE+A+D, Stuart Products)0.15 mL/kg IM, repeat in21 days63Most species/hypovitaminosis A, D3,or E; product contains alcohol andmay sting when administered; aproduct without alcohol can becompounded commercially******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments0.3 mL/kg PO, then 0.06mL/kg q7d x 3-4treatments63Box turtles/hypovitaminosis A;parenteral use may result inhypervitaminosis A and D; givenPO may enhance Ca uptakeVitamin B complex 0.3 mL/kg SC, IM q24h63 Most species/anorexia;hypovitaminosis B; use withcaution as B6 toxicity may occur25 mg thiamine/kg POq24h x 3-7 days63Most species/appetite stimulant;hypovitaminosis BVitamin B1 (thiamine) 50-100 mg/kg PO, SC, IMq24h59Piscivores/thiamine deficiency fromthawed fish30 g/kg feed fish PO63 Crocodilians/treat or preventdeficiencyVitamin B12(cyanocobalamin)0.05 mg/kg SC, IM63 Snakes, lizards/appetite stimulantVitamin C 10-20 mg/kg SC, IMq24h138,322All species/empirical forhypovitaminosis C; stomatitis;skin slough in snakes; supportivetherapy for bacterial infectionsVitamin D3 — Nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidism;hypocalcemia; deficiency andexcess may result in soft tissuecalcification1000 U/kg IM, repeat in 1wk63Most species/deficiency; use with oralcalcium glubionate and carbonate,general dietary management, andUVB irradiation200 U/kg PO, IM q7d32 Lizards/PO may be safer than IM, butabsorption is poor in somespecies36,358400 U/kg IM q7d x3treatments284Green iguanas/nutritional secondaryhyperparathyroidism; may usewith calcitonin afternormocalcemic; also supplementoral calciumVitamin E/selenium (L-Se,Schering)1 U vitamin E/kg IM111 Piscivores/hypovitaminosis E;myopathy, anorexia, swollensubcutaneous nodules50 U vitamin E/kg + 0.025mg selenium/kg IM121Lizards/hypovitaminosis E (vitaminE/selenium)Vitamin K1 0.25-0.5 mg/kg IM63 Most species/hypovitaminosis K1;coagulopathiesBW: Body weight.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******aAlso see Table 4-23.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.10Euthanasia Methods Used in Reptiles.13When euthanizing reptiles, it is important to confirm that the heart has fully stopped functioningafter applying the euthanasia technique. This is best accomplished by placing a Doppler flowprobe over the heart of the reptile or using electrocardiography.AcceptableMethodsAgents CommentsInjectableagentsSodium pentobarbital(most solutionscontain phenytoinsodium as well;60-100 mg/kg [≈1mL/5 kg] IV, IC,IO, ICe)Sedate using tiletamine-zolazepam (20-50 mg/kg SC,IM), alfaxalone (30-50 mg/kg SC, IM) or otheranesthetic/analgesic prior to administeringpentobarbital solution; if administering ICe, dilutepentobarbital solution by approximately 80% due tohigh pH of most commercial solutions Potassium chloride(75-150 mg/kg IV,IC, IO)Imperative to sedate using tiletamine-zolazepam (20-50 mg/kg IM) or other anesthetic/analgesic prior toadministering; unacceptable use in consciousreptiles; useful when sodium pentobarbital isunavailable or if deceased reptile’s body haspotential to be consumed by wildlife after euthanasiaInhaled agents Carbon dioxide gas While considered acceptable, injectable methods arepreferred due to prolonged exposure time andpotential animal distress; personnel exposure also anissuePhysical Captive bolt orgunshotWhile these are considered acceptable methods, they arenot preferred; typically only used in crocodilians orother large species; knowledge of appropriateanatomic sites is imperativeAdjunctive MethodsPhysical 2-step process:sedation/analgesiafollowed bydecapitation orpithingDecapitation following heavy sedation/analgesia isacceptable in small- to medium-sized reptiles;decapitation is unacceptable in conscious reptiles;this procedure is commonly used when the brainneeds preserving for research 2-step process:sedation/analgesiafollowed byexsanguinationExsanguination following heavy sedation/analgesia isacceptable in small-to medium-sized reptiles;exsanguination is unacceptable in conscious reptilesUnacceptable MethodsPhysical Hypothermia orfreezingThere is no concrete evidence that reptiles exposed tofreezing temperature do not experience pain anddistressAbbreviations: IV=Intravenous; IC=intracardiac; ICe=intracoelomic; IO=intraosseous;IM=intramuscular; SC=subcutaneous.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.11Miscellaneous Agents Used in Reptiles.Agent Dosage Species/CommentsAcetylcysteine (200mg/mL injectable)0.25 mL in 5 mLsterile salinefor 30 minq24h71Chelonian nasal discharge; given until clinicalsigns resolvedActivated charcoal-kaolin suspension(ToxiBan, Vet-a-Mix)5-10 mL/kg POq24h ×1-3days290Sea turtles/reduce exposure to brevitoxinAllopurinol — Careful when giving with urine acidifiers anduricosuric drugs (probenecid)9010-20 mg/kg POq24h106,311,381Most species/gout; decreases production of uricacid;63 long-term therapy; tortoises mayrespond best25 mg/kg POq24h196Green iguanas50 mg/kg POq24h × 30 days,then q72h251Chelonians/hyperuricemiaAluminum hydroxide(Amphogel, Wyeth-Ayerst)100 mg/kg PO q12-24h282Most species/hyperphosphatemia (associated withrenal disease); decreases intestinal absorptionof phosphorus; use cautiously in patients withgastric outlet obstructionAmidotrizoate(Gastrografin,Squibb)5-7.7 mL/kg PO293 Gastrointestinal contrast agent; reported fastertransit vs barium; no risk if regurgitation7.5 mL/kg PO325 Tortoises/gastrointestinal contrast agent; give viagavage; mean transit times: 2.6 hr at 87°F(30.6°C); 6.6 hr at 71°F (21.5°C)Aminophylline 2-4 mg/kg IM63 Most species/bronchodilatorAtropine 0.01-0.04 mg/kgIM, IV q8-24h324Most species/dries up excess mucous secretionswith infectious stomatitis0.1-0.2 mg/kg IMprn63Most species/organophosphate toxicity0.2 mg/kg SC, IM63 Most species/respiratory distress associated withexcessive secretionsBarium sulfate 5-20 mL/kg PO62 Most species/gastrointestinal contrast studies******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments25 mL/kg PO, 35%wt:volconcentration24Ball pythons/best gastrointestinal image qualityBleomycin withhighvoltageelectrical pulses1 U/cm3intralesional,repeat in 33days49Green sea turtles/fibropapillomas;electrochemotherapy; use concurrent localanesthesia3.65 mg/kg (1mg/mL)intralesional,repeat in 2wk261Yellow-bellied slider turtles/squamous cellcarcinoma; post partial surgical excisionCalcium EDTA 10-40 mg/kg IMq12h348Most species/heavy metal chelation; ensurehydrationCarboplatin 2.5-5 mg/kg IV,intracardiac310Most species/carcinoma, osteosarcoma,mesothelioma, carcinomatosisCarboplatin 4.6 mgimplantable bead(compounded,WedgewoodPharmacy)≤10 mg/kg totalq3wkintralesional orsurgicalexcision sites223Chameleons/squamous cell carcinoma, carcinoma;cut bead into smaller pieces to avoid overdoseChlorambucil(Leukeran, GlaxoSmithKline)0.1-0.2 mg/kgPO310Green iguanas/successful management oflymphoma post radiation therapyCHOP Therapy(Modified)See original paperfor fullprotocoldetails135Green iguanas/successful management oflymphoma post radiation therapyChoukroun’s PlateletRich Fibrin0.05% body weightwhole blood71Elongate tortoise/nasal wound; whole blood innonanticoagulant tube; centrifuge 6000 rpm x 7min; 3 layers – middle layer is PRF clot,remove with sterile syringe/swab to avoidRBC’s; place clot into cleaned wound; coverwith antiseptic debridement gelCimetidine 4 mg/kg PO, IMq8-12h63Most species/gastric and duodenal ulceration;esophagitis; gastroesophageal reflux; may usein renal failure to increase phosphate secretionCisapride (Propulsid,Janssen)0.5-2 mg/kg POq24h63Most species/motility modifier; gastrointestinalstasis; not commercially available in the UnitedStates; may be compounded; ineffective indesert tortoises at 1 mg/kg4691-4 mg/kg POq24h untildefecates481Bearded dragons/constipation******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsCisplatin 0.5-1 mg/kg IV(prehydrate),intracardiac,intralesional (inoil)63Most species/carcinoma, osteosarcoma, infiltrativesarcoma (intralesional), mesothelioma,carcinomatosisCyclophosphamide 10 mg/kg SC, IM,IV,intracardiac63Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,myeloproliferative tumorsDioctyl Nasulfosuccinate1-5 mg/kg PO154 Most species/constipation; use 1:20 dilutionDiphenhydramine 2 mg/kg IMq24h290Sea turtles/brevitoxicosis; rapidly reducedconjunctival edema, prevented cornealulcerationDoxorubicin 1 mg/kg IV q7d × 2treatments,then q14d × 2treatments,then q21d × 2treatments401Snakes/chemotherapy for sarcoma (alsolymphoma, carcinoma, etc.); treatment periodsvariableEnalopril 0.5-0.7 mg/kgq24h414Combined with spirolactone and furosemide tobriefly manage chronic heart failure in spiny-tailed monitorFamotidine 0.5 mg/kg SCq3d489Kemp’s ridley sea turtlesFurosemide 2-5 mg/kg PO, IM,IV q12-24h221,222,243Most species/diuretic for edema and pulmonarycongestion; while lacking loop of Henle, mayeffect via other mechanisms5 mg/kg IMq24h × 1-3days290Sea turtles/intentional dehydration withbrevitoxicosis; no concurrent fluids givenHydrochlorothiazide 1 mg/kg q24-72h106 Lizards/promotes diuresis; monitor hydrationstatusIodine compound(Conray 280,Mallinckrodt)500 mg/kg IV,IO106Lizards/IV urography; take radiographs 0, 5, 15,30, and 60 min post injectionIohexol (240 mg I/mL;Omnipaque, SanofiWinthrop)5-20 mL/kg PO63 Most species/gastrointestinal contrast studies;nonionic, organic iodine solution; goodalternative to barium;48 faster transit time thanbarium; can be diluted 1:1 with water75 mg/kg IV234 Kemp’s ridley turtles (juveniles)/glomerularfiltration rate assessment******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/CommentsK-Y Jelly (Johnson &Johnson)1-3 mL of 50% K-YJelly and 50%warmwater/100 g63Most species/enemaLactulose 0.5 mL/kg POq24h222,243,442Lizards, chelonians/hepatic lipidosisL-asparaginase (Elspar,Merck)400 U/kg SC, IM,intracardiac63Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,myeloproliferative tumorsMaropitant citrate(Cerenia, Zoetis)1 mg/kg PO, SCq24h242Antiemetic; antinausea; no adverse effects seen;Substance P conserved across classesMelphalan (Alkeran,Celegene)0.05-0.1 mg/kgPO63Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,myeloproliferative tumorsMethimazole 2 mg/kg q24h × 30days175Snakes/excessive shedding from hyperthyroidism;limited effectivenessMethotrexate 0.25 mg/kg PO,SC, IV63Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,myeloproliferative tumorsMetoclopramide 0.06 mg/kg POq24h × 7 days103Most species/stimulates gastric motility0.05 mg/kg POq24h × 7 days63Sea turtles/intestinal motility stimulant0.5 mg/kg IMq24h116Sea turtles/supportive care1-10 mg/kg POq24h496Tortoises/stimulates gastric motility; ineffective indesert tortoises at 1 mg/kg469Milk thistle (Silybummarianum)4-15 mg/kg PO q8-12h222,243Lizards, chelonians/hepatoprotectantPentobarbital 60-100 mg/kg IV,ICe13,53EuthanasiaPimobendan 0.2 mg/kg POq24h243LizardsPotassium chloride 2 mEq/kg IV, ICe32 Most species/euthanasia; cessation of cardiacactivity; administer following a euthanasiasolutionProbenecid 250 mg/kg POq12h370Most species/gout; increases uric acid excretion;can be increased prnS-adenosylmethionine(Denosyl,Nutramax)30 mg/kg POq24h340Savannah monitors/liver diseaseSodium bicarbonate 0.5-1 mg/kg IV63 Most species/hypoxic acidosis post anesthesiaSucralfate 500-1000 mg/kgPO q6-8h63Most species/oral, esophageal, gastric, andduodenal ulcers******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Dosage Species/Comments200 mg/kg POq24h490Green iguanas/post duodenoileal anastomosisTamoxifen 60-day timerelease pellets(InnovativeResearch ofAmerica)Pellets containing5 mg tamoxifenimplants ICe93Leopard geckos/inhibition of folliculardevelopment for 60 days if implanted beforevitellogenesisTerbutaline 0.01-0.02 mg/kgIM367Reduce bronchospasmNebulization, 15-45 min/sessionq4-12h × 3+days367Lower respiratory tract particle size should be ≤0.5µm, 2-10 µm for trachea; oxygen flow rates <10kg 1-2 L/min, 5 L/min for larger reptiles; usebubble humidifier; possible adversecardiovascular effectsTricainemethanesulfonate(MS-222)250-500 mg/kg ICe1% solutionfollowed by0.1-1 mL 50%solution ICe orintracardiac19,83Fence lizards, desert iguanas, garter snakes, housegeckos, anole species/euthanasiaVincristine 0.025 mg/kg IV63 Most species/lymphoma, leukemia,myeloproliferative tumors******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.12aListed values are median followed by either min-max or a confidence interval in parenthesesdepending upon reported methods and the authors’ judgment from the available evidence,unless a single value indicating n=1 or a range that is not enclosed in parentheses indicatinga reported reference interval.bAlbumin is measured by colorimetry (e.g., bromocresol green) and globulin value iscalculated unless otherwise indicated “PEP” (protein electrophoresis).cRemarkably high reference ranges for Ca (mean, 159 mg/dL; range, 30-337 mg/dL) and P(mean, 35 mg/dL; range, 8-69) have also been reported.112******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebookconverter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.13aListed values are median followed by either min-max or a confidence interval in parenthesesdepending upon reported methods and the authors’ judgment from the available evidence,unless a single value indicating n=1 or a range that is not enclosed in parentheses indicatinga reported reference interval.bAlbumin is measured by colorimetry (e.g., bromocresol green) and globulin value iscalculated unless otherwise indicated “PEP” (protein electrophoresis).cCan be elevated in gravid females.236,346dThese data were obtained from iguanas housed outdoors with unfiltered sunlight.eAdults.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.14aListed values are median followed by either min-max or a confidence interval in parenthesesdepending upon reported methods and the authors’ judgment from the available evidence,unless a single value indicating n=1, or a range that is not enclosed in parentheses indicatinga reported reference interval.bAlbumin is measured by colorimetry (e.g., bromocresol green) and globulin value iscalculated unless otherwise indicated “PEP” (protein electrophoresis).cCan be elevated in gravid females236,346dCalculated from data.eJuveniles.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.15Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values of Crocodilians.aMeasurement American alligator (Alligatormississippiensis)64,464Dwarf caiman (Paleosuchuspalpebrosus)64,464HematologyPCV (%) 24 (9-39) 22 (12-35)RBC (106/µL) 0.57 (0.21-1.3) 0.66 (0.43-0.89)Hgb (g/dL) 7.8 (4.0-12.2) 7.7 (6.2-8.8)MCV (fL) 430 (122-786) 362 (180-535)MCH (pg) 135 (37-246) 98MCHC (g/dL) 32 (18-45) 33 (23-38)WBC (103/µL) 6.39 (2.03-21.3) 6 (2.1-14.7) Heterophils (103/µL)2.51 (0.50-8.19) 2.95 (0.51-7.73) Lymphocytes(103/µL)2.21 (0.29-12.1) 2.10 (0.28-9.66) Monocytes (103/µL)0.31 (0.04-2.04) 0.10 (0.02-0.44) Azurophils (103/µL)0.05 (0.01-1.25) 0.04 (0.01-0.73) Eosinophils (103/µL)0.22 (0.03-1.02) 0.12 (0.03-0.43) Basophils (103/µL)0.71 (0.04-3.23) 0.15 (0.04-0.46)Fibrinogen(mg/dL)267 ± 115 100 (0-200)ChemistriesALP (U/L) 34 (12-105) 13 (2-26)ALT (U/L) 37 (8-92) 37 (5-74)Amylase (U/L) 58 (25-1067) 47 (25-234)AST (U/L) 246 (111-539) 88 (36-218)Bilirubin, total(mg/dL)0.2 (0-0.8) 0.2 (0-0.6)BUN (mg/dL) 2 (1-18) 2 (0-4)Calcium (mg/dL) 11.2 (8.1-15.1) 10.4 (8.1-13.8)******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Measurement American alligator (Alligatormississippiensis)64,464Dwarf caiman (Paleosuchuspalpebrosus)64,464Chloride(mmol/L)112 (94-123) 121 (99-144)Cholesterol(mg/dL)108 (32-291) 115 (29-241)Creatine kinase(U/L)911 (145-7408) 1926 (89-9228)Creatinine(mg/dL)0.3 (0-0.7) 0.3 (0-0.6)Glucose (mg/dL) 88 (34-177) 64 (13-146)LDH (U/L) 346 (13-1726) 1269 (62-4058)Osmolarity(mOsm/L)— 303 (301-304)Phosphorus(mg/dL)4.3 (1.6-9.9) 4.4 (2.0-9.7)Potassium(mmol/L)3.8 (2.4-5.3) 4.3 (3.0-6.3)Protein, total(g/dL)5.1 (2.6-7.8) 5.4 (2.6-7.8) Albumin (g/dL)b 1.5 (0.4-2.6) 1.4 (0.6-2.7) Albumin (PEP;g/dL)b— 2.2 (1.8-2.5) Globulin (g/dL)b 3.3 (0.7-5.5) 4.0 (1.8-6.2)Sodium (mmol/L) 147 (134-160) 151 (134-167)Triglyceride(mg/dL)83 (7-505) 92 (9-174)Uric acid (mg/dL) 1.3 (0.2-4.0) 2.1 (0.4-5.6)aListed values are median followed by either min-max or a confidence interval in parenthesesdepending upon reported methods and the authors’ judgment from the available evidence,unless a single value indicating n=1, or a range that is not enclosed in parentheses indicatinga reported reference interval.bAlbumin is measured by colorimetry (e.g., bromocresol green) and globulin value iscalculated unless otherwise indicated “PEP” (protein electrophoresis).******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.16aUnpublished data determined in clinical pathology laboratory, University of Georgia, Athens,Georgia, USA.bAnalyses performed using heparinized plasma, agarose gel plates.cData presented as range followed by mean ± SD.dAnalyses performed using heparinized plasma and cellulose acetate plates, and quantifiedby densitometry.From Divers SJ, Camus MS. Lizards. In: Heatley JJ, Russell KE, eds. Exotic AnimalLaboratory Diagnosis. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell; 2020:319-346.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.17aData presented as mean ± SD unless indicated otherwise; values in parentheses arecorrected for a body temperature of 30°C; when afternoon values were significantly different,they are listed in brackets.bValues are reported as medians.cSpO2 = oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry.dRR = respiration rate.From Divers SJ, Camus MS. Lizards. In: Heatley JJ, Russell KE, eds. Exotic AnimalLaboratory Diagnosis. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell; 2020:319-346.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.18aReference intervals.bRanges.cMedian (range).******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.19RH, Relative humidity; C, carnivorous; F, frugivorous; H, herbivorous; I, insectivorous; O,molluscavorous; Om, omnivorous; Op, ophiophagus; P, piscivorous; V, viviparous; Ov,oviparous.aTemperatures shown are ideal ambient daytime temperature gradients. These should beallowed to fall by approximately 5°C (9°F) during the night. “Hot-spot” temperatures shouldgenerally be 5°C (9°F) greater than the highest temperature shown.bPreferred daytime temperature range for other commonly housed captive snakes are: rosyboa (Lichanura trivirgata): 27-29.5°C (81-85°F); green tree python (Morelia viridis): 24-28°C(75-82°F); carpet python (Morelia spilota): 27-29.5°C (81-85°F); corn snake (Elaphe guttata):25-30°C (77-86°F); yellow rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta): 25-29°C (77-84°F); gopher/bullsnake(Pituophis melanoleucus): 25-29°C (77-84°F).cPreferred daytime temperature range for other commonly housed captive lizards are: daygecko (Pheluma sp.): 29.5°C (85°F); chameleons (montane) (Chamaeleo spp.): 21-27°C (70-81°F); chameleons (lowland) (Chamaeleo spp.): 27-29°C (81-84°F); bearded dragon (Pogonavitticeps): 26.7-29.5°C (80-85°F); blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua sp.): 27-29.5°C (81-85°F);monitor lizards (Varanus spp.): 29-31°C (84-88°F); tegus (Tupinambis spp.): 27-30°C (81-86°F).dUppercase letters denote principal dietary requirements; lowercase denotes secondarypreference.eTemperature-dependent.fCan have long hatch times dependent on incubation parameters.gThis simulates humid underground burrow. Use dark-colored plastic container with cutentrance, moistened paper towels or sphagnum moss.hNeed to set up water component like fish tank with proper filter (use one for koi or turtles),pump, water quality testing, dechlorinator.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*************ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.20Urinalysis Values of Chelonians.153,208,250,252Measurement Normal Values Abnormal ValuesSpecific gravity 1.003-1.014(mean,1.008)Up to 1.034pH Herbivores: alkalineOmnivores: 5-8AcidicaColor Colorless to paleyellow with whiteuratesDark yellow, yellow-brown, yellow-greenTurbidity Clear CloudyProtein Trace proteinuria Increased proteinuriaGlucose Glucosuria up to 30mg/dLGlucosuria can be higher than 50 mg/dL withanorexiaRenal casts None Various types presentCalcium,phosphorus,ammonia, urea,creatinineDetectable in urine Significantly increased in urine of Testudo spp.with renal diseaseAST, CK, LDH Detectable in urine Significantly increased in urine of Testudo spp.with renal diseaseCrystals Amorphousurates/ammoniumbiuratesMany other crystals found in renal failure; uricacid crystals in gout; bilirubin and tyrosinecrystals in liver diseaseaMay be associated with hibernation, anorexia, and improper diet.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.21aAmplitude in mV, duration in sec, MEA (mean electrical axis) in degrees.bRoom temperature was 22-26°C during ECG recording.From Beaufrère H, Schilliger L, Pariaut R. Cardiovascular system. In: Mitchell MA, Tully TN Jr,eds. Current Therapy in Exotic Pet Pratice. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2016:151-220, with permissionfrom Elsevier.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.22aHunt C, unpublished data.bIQR, Interquartile range.cMEA, Mean electrical axis.From Schilliger L, Girling S. Cardiology. In: Divers SJ, Stahl SJ, eds. Mader’s Reptile andAmphibian Medicine and Surgery. 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier; 2019:669-698, withpermission from Elsevier.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.23Select Products and Guidelines Used in Force-Feeding Anorectic or DebilitatedReptiles.a,bAgent Guidelines Species/CommentsAlfalfa pellets(e.g., iguanaor rabbitpellets) orpowder(AlfalfaPowder,NOWFoods)Blend (1:4) withelectrolytesolution orwater; 20-30mL/kg POq48h (lizards)to q84h(chelonians)63Herbivorous reptiles/administer via gavage oresophagostomy tube; may clog feeding tube; for iguanas,may gavage equal volume of water on alternate daysuntil patient is stable and eating; soaked pellets can alsobe hand-fed (especially by owner)Baby foods Vegetable; blendin with otherfoodsources63Meat (smallamount);blend inwith otherfoodsources63Herbivorous reptiles/administer via gavage; for somespecies, some fruit baby food can be addedOmnivorous species/ administer by gavageCommercialdry ormoist diets,which aregeneraspecific(e.g.,Fluker’s,Zilla, Tetra,Zoo Med,etc.)Blend (1:4) withelectrolytesolution orwater; 20-30mL/kg or 3%body weightPO q48h(lizards) toq72h(chelonians)63Herbivorous, omnivorous, insectivorous reptiles/administervia gavage or esophagostomy tube; may clog feedingtube; for iguanas, may gavage equal volume of water onalternate days until patient is stable and eating; soakedpellets can also be hand-fed (especially by owner)Dog/cat food,canned(a/d, Hill’s;Maximum-Calorie,Iams;NutritionalRecoveryFormula,Eukanuba)30 mL/kg PO q7-14d245Carnivorous species/administer via gavage; although lowprotein (8.5%), some concern over high purine andvitamin A levels (probably OK unless concurrent renaldisease); in dehydrated animals, dilute 1:1 withphysiological solution, pediatric oral human electrolytesolution (Pedialyte, Ross), or Gatorade (Gatorade); oncestabilized, small whole animals (lubricated with eggwhite) can be force-fed******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Agent Guidelines Species/CommentsElectrolytesolutions(Pedialyte,Ross;Gatorade,Gatorade)15-25 mL/kg POq24h63Anecdotal most species/no data with respect tocosts/benefitsEmeraidIntensiveCareOmnivore,Herbivore,Carnivore& PiscivoreFormulas(Lafeber)Mix as labeled,generally topancakeba�erconsistency,feed smallamount tostart (see bagsuggestion)once dailyHerbivorous, omnivorous, insectivorous, carnivorous,piscivorous reptiles/administer via gavage oresophagostomy tube; may clog feeding tube; typicallyfollow the general feeding sequence: first feed, 1% bodyweight; second feed, 2% body weight; third feed, 3%body weightHigh-proteinpowders(CarnivoreCare,Oxbow PetProducts;EmeraidCarnivore,Lafeber)Mix as labeled,generally topancakeba�erconsistency,feed smallamount tostart (see bagsuggestion)once dailyInsectivorous and carnivorous species/once reconstituted,can be mixed 1:1 with an alfalfa or timothy product fortrue omnivorous reptiles; administer via gavageVetarkProfessionalOxbowCriticalCareFormula(CCF)PowderMix as labeled Herbivorous, omnivorous reptiles/administer via gavage oresophagostomy tube; may clog feeding tubeaGeneral guidelines for force-feeding: generally provide nutrition following rehydration ofpatient; needs may vary with specific disease (e.g., low protein with renal disease); force-feeding volumes are frequently started at a low/modest level and gradually brought up to thedesired level (for patients with severe disease/cachexia, transition should be very gradual);concurrent to with force-feeding and hydrating a patient, highly palatable food items should beprovided for voluntary food intake.bDietary fiber supplements (alfalfa pellets or powder; barley powder; purified cellulose) shouldbe an integral part of enteral therapy for herbivorous reptiles.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.24Guidelines for Tracheal/Pulmonary and Colonic Lavage in Reptiles.30,307,337SnakesTracheal/pulmonarylavageAlthough the procedure can be performed under manual restraint,sedation or anesthesia may reduce stress; pass red rubber catheterthrough glo�is to premeasured distance; infuse with 5-10 mL/kg oftepid (29°C, 85°F), sterile 0.9% saline; massage and rock the snake’sbody to loosen debris; aspirateColonic lavage Pass lubricated soft red rubber catheter into cloaca; infuse with 10-20mL/kg of tepid (29°C, 85°F), sterile saline; massage coelomic cavityand gently aspirateLizardsTracheal/pulmonarylavageGeneral anesthesia is typically necessary; if possible, intubate withsterile endotracheal tube; pass sterile catheter inside lumen(premeasure distance to sample site); infuse 5-10 mL/kg of tepid(29°C, 85°F), sterile 0.9% saline and aspirate several times; not allfluid will be recoveredColonic lavage Pass lubricated soft red rubber catheter into cloaca without excessiveforce; infuse 10 mL/kg of tepid (29°C, 85°F), sterile saline and gentlyaspirate several timesCheloniansTracheal/pulmonarylavageSedation or anesthesia usually necessary; intubate with sterileendotracheal tube if possible; if unilateral, pass radiomarkedcatheter into affected lung; may be helpful to bend it in the directionof the lung prior to insertion, though location cannot be ensuredwithout orthogonal radiographic evidence of placement; infusewith tepid (29°C, 85°F), sterile saline at 5-10 mL/kg; gently aspirateColonic lavage Pass lubricated red rubber catheter into cloaca; infuse with tepid (29°C,85°F), sterile saline at no more than 10 mL/kg; gently aspirate;repeat several times******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.25Preferred Injection Sites in Reptiles.a,301CheloniansSubcutaneous Drug administration sites include the subcutaneous tissues just under the skinbetween the neck and forelimbsIntramuscular Drug administration sites include the caudal forelimbs and lateral pectoralmuscles just ventral to the forelimbsIntravenous Drug administration sites include the jugular, brachial, or ventral coccygealveinsLizardsSubcutaneous Drug administration sites include the subcutaneous tissues just under the skinon the dorsum overlying the epaxial muscles; administer only in the cranialhalf of the bodyIntramuscular Drug administration sites include the forelimbs and epaxial muscles; administeronly in the cranial half of the bodyIntravenous Drug administration sites include the ventral coccygeal and ventral abdominalveinsIntraosseous Drug administration requires intraosseous catheterization of the distal femur orproximal tibiaSnakesSubcutaneous Drug administration sites include the subcutaneous tissues just under the skinon the dorsum overlying the epaxial muscles; administer only in the cranialhalf of the bodyIntramuscular Drug administration sites include the epaxial muscles; administer only in thecranial half of the bodyIntravenous Drug administration sites include the ventral coccygeal vein and the palatineveins in the oral cavity of larger speciesCrocodiliansSubcutaneous Drug administration sites include the subcutaneous tissues just under the skinon the dorsum while avoiding the osteoderms; administer only in the cranialhalf of the bodyIntramuscular Drug administration sites include the forelimbs and epaxial muscles whileavoiding the osteoderms; administer only in the cranial half of the bodyIntravenous Drug administration sites include the ventral coccygeal and the occipital sinusIntraosseous Drug administration requires intraosseous catheterization of the distal femur orproximal tibiaaSlightly modified from original.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.26Venipuncture Sites Commonly Used in Reptiles.a,63,101,117,133,193,198,389,457,479SnakesVentral caudalveinVentral aspect of tail caudal to cloaca under central scute; avoid hemipenesand anal sacs, can be difficult to collect from in boas, pythons, anacondas;in rare cases, may lead to tail necrosis/paresisHeart Dorsal recumbency; insertion of needle under central abdominal scale at 45°angle caudal to heart; pericardial fluid contamination can occur; thisprocedure is likely painful and can result in myocardial laceration andcardiovascular collapsePalatine vein Best on large boids; leave snake body on floor with restrainers; slightlyelevated head; use spatulas to hold mouth open; bend needle; no holdoff;watch catching hand on teeth; nothing to rest hands on; co�on swab tohold offLizardsVentral caudalveinVentral aspect of vertebral body under center of middle scale; avoidhemipenes and anal sacs; this vein can also be approached laterally byinserting needle under lateral process of vertebral body aiming towardmidline; ventral approach may, in rare cases, lead to tail necrosis/paresisVentralabdominalveinVein is located on caudal to middle midline within inner surface ofabdominal wall; insert 25-g needle (bent at 45° angle) cranially, at acuteangle to skin and in midline of abdomen, just caudal to umbilicus; avoidurinary bladder in species with themJugular vein Veins are lateral and deep; insert needle caudal to tympanum; best tried inlarger animals; transillumination in chameleons and other small lizardsCheloniansJugular vein Lymphatic contamination can be a concern with most locations ofphlebotomy in chelonians; jugular, however, considered less likely Right vein often larger than left; runs level with tympanum to base of neckwith head extended; may require sedationSubcarapacialvein andplexusThe sinus accessed with patient’s head either extended or retracted;depending on conformation of carapace, needle may be bent up to 60°and positioned in midline just caudal to skin insertion of dorsal aspect ofneck and ventral aspect of cranial rim of carapace; needle is advanced incaudodorsal direction, with slight negative pressure; can cause significantinternal hemorrhage or paresis in some casesDorsal caudalveinClose to carapace, dorsal to dorsal aspect of vertebral body; lymph dilutioncommon; can flip large chelonians on carapace to access to reducerestraint neededBrachialvein/plexusNear triceps tendon at lateral aspect of radiohumeral joint (elbow); foreleggrasped/extended; triceps tendon palpated near caudal aspect of elbowjoint; needle inserted ventral to tendon with syringe perpendicular toforearm******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Interdigitalvessels of rearflippersAdult leatherback sea turtles, about 2.5 cm deep, near phalangeal junctions,best at P1-P2; along side of phalanx, 20°-30° angle to flipper surfaceCrocodiliansVentral caudalveinVentral aspect of vertebral body under center of middle scale; avoidhemipenes and anal sacs; this vein can also be approached laterally byinserting needle under lateral process of vertebral body aiming towardmidline; ventral approach may in rare cases lead to tail necrosis/paresisSupravertebralveinPosition needle in dorsal midline, just caudal to occiput and perpendicular toskin surface; slowly advance needle with slight negative pressure;excessive penetration can cause spinal traumaaGenerally recommended to collect only 0.7% body weight (0.7 mL total in 100 g animal) inhealthy reptiles, less in debilitated animals.******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.27Sites Commonly Used for Intravenous Catherization in Reptiles.99SnakesVentral tailveinWith the animal in dorsal recumbency, an area of the tail is disinfected;depending on the size of the animal and operator preferences, different levelsof the tail can be used, making sure to avoid going too cranial, close to thehemipenes in males; the skin is entered at a 15- to 30-degree angle to ensureparallelism between the catheter and the vein; a blood flush can be observedin the back of the catheter when the majority of the catheter is alreadyinserted in the tail; if this is not the case (i.e., the blood flush is observed withmost of the catheter outside of the tail), it may not be possible to slide theremaining part of the teflon cathether in the vessel; the catheter in this case issecured to the tail with tapeLizardsVentralabdominalveinWith the animal in dorsal recumbency, the vein can be entered percutaneouslyon the abdominal midline cranial to the umbilical scar; the catheter is passedalmost parallel to the abdomen and directed cranially; in certain instances,fla�ening the abdominal skin during the process helps in contacting the veinCephalic vein This vessel can be used for catheterization of large lizards, such as adult iguanas;the vein typically employed for catheterization is not located on the dorsalsurface of the distal foreleg as in mammals, but is on the medial surface, inbetween the muscles extensor carpi ulnaris and flexor digitorum longus; askin incision is generally required for visualization of this vessel; the cathetercan be secured with standard tapeCheloniansJugular vein The chelonian is placed in lateral recumbency, with the neck extended and thehead slightly flexed laterally to increase exposure of side of the neck that isdirected toward the operator; the jugular vein is often visible aftercompression is applied at the celomic inlet; if the vein is not visible, latero-lateral maneuvering of the head may aid in the visualization of the vessel; thecatheter is placed in a craniocaudal direction; once the catheter is placed insite, two wings are made with tape and the catheter is secured to the skineither with sutures or glue; wraps around the neck of chelonians should beavoided since it may result in asphyxiation******ebook converter DEMO Watermarks*******Table 4.28Fluid Therapy in Reptiles.368Please refer to Table 4.9 for additional fluid specifics, including dosing.Osmolarity• Normal reptile osmolarity is similar to mammals, but there are some species thatvary, particularly some crocodilians• Generally, hypo- and hyperosmolar fluids should be avoided• Calculated osmolarity is a poor reflection of actual or measured osmolarity in at leastAmerican alligators and bearded dragonsGeneral Fluid Therapy• Therapy should be goal directed• Maintenance fluid rates range from 10-15 mL/kg/day (also correct for dehydrationdeficits)• Replace at rate lost—acute vs chronic; with 72-96 hours as the fastest recommended• Fluids can be given oral, cloacal (soak in shallow bath), ICe, SC, IV, IO; la�er twopreferred• ICe has